ABSTRACT. The resurgence of geo-politics and a “New Cold War” has brought foreign policy formation to the fore, including its social, cultural and gendered underpinnings. While offensive security doctrines traditionally have been strongly associated with masculinity, defensive positions are less obviously gendered. How has neutrality been gendered in different times and places? In what ways have neutrality and nonalignment affected representations of gender and national security? How can we understand change and continuity when it comes to gender and neutrality?

Historical experiences of neutrality/nonalignment need to be widely addressed, including global, national and local aspects. Art, culture and imagination have also played an important role as individuals and social groups have identified with and challenged neutrality. The interdisciplinary papers in this session will approach the foreign policy doctrines of neutral countries from different angles using historical material. The session will conceptualize foreign policy as a gendered, nationalized and racialized discourse that manifests itself in historical processes, ranging from individual practices, to policy formation and national narratives, as well as military strategy and violence.

The papers of this session deal with how actors in security contexts related to neutrality/nonalignment (re)shape gender representations. They discuss how masculinities/femininities, sexualities and race/ethnicities are manifested in the history of neutrality and investigate how not only political but also artistic expressions, for example literature and art, have historically provided venues for identity-work related to neutrality as a foreign policy. Another theme is micro-historic analysis of the individual lived experience of neutrality. Furthermore, the papers discuss how to use a gendered historical approach in relation to research questions, materials and methodologies.

ABSTRACT. In 2013, Dagens Nyheter, presented its main front-page story “The police register thousands of Roma” revealed the existence of a computerized database stored on a server belonging to the police of Scania. This news, understandably, led to horrified reactions by press and civil society. But how foreign is such registration to Scandinavia? How historically well-insulated have, indeed, Scandinavian and Baltic countries have been to anti-Romani experts? What happened with Romani minorities during WWII?

Since the mid-1930s, the Nazi regime concerned itself with the systematic registration and identification of Roma. At its 1935 Copenhagen Conference, Interpol’s participating states backed the initiative proposed by representatives of the SS-dominated German police force regarding the creation of an international registry of Roma. Many Roma at that time were nomadic and ID-less. On 25 September 1942, the government of Sweden ordered personal registration of Roma and Travellers. The purpose of the registration was to solve “a problem” by mapping both these groups. Since 1940, two Danish physicians Erik D. Bartels and Gudrun Brun, conducted the statistical, sociological and race biological investigations of Danish Roma at the Institute of Human Genetic. After the 1942 deportation of Norwegian Jews to Germany Quisling’s government started to discuss “the solving of Gypsy problem” in Norway. Summer 1943 Police Minister Jonas Lie proposed to Quisling the establishment of special working camps and mass sterilization of Roma.

The paper is presented the first results of the study that supported by the Foundation for Baltic and East European Studies (Sweden) and Södertörn University as a part of the project “Police, Experts and Race: Handling the ‘Gypsy Plague’ in Denmark, Sweden and Latvia, 1930-45”. The focus of this paper is on the transnational context of registration of Roma undertaken during WWII in Scandinavian and Baltic countries.

ABSTRACT. Samtidigt som flera av våra moderna medier gång efter annan har visat sig naturalisera föreställningar om tillhörighet och lag och rätt, genom exempelvis moralpanik och banal nationalism, finns det också exempel på motsatsen. Då medier har gläntat på dörrar till alternativa världar och därmed genom nya erfarenheter utmanat våra förväntningshorisonter. Denna motsägelse försätter medierna i en ambivalent ställning, och tvingar oss att ifrågasätta i vilken mån vi kan förstå deras roll i samhället ur ett sociologiskt perspektiv, och i vilken mån vi istället kanske måste förstå den ur ett historiskt perspektiv. Tidig film, från ca. 1895 till 1914, har sedan början av 1980-talet ägnats ett nytt intresse av filmhistoriker. Det har bidragit till nya intressanta debatter om mediets sociala och kulturella genomslag. Genom en kvalitativ fallstudie av den svenska arbetarrörelsens representation i tidig film, avser detta paper, mot bakgrund av debatten kring mediers roll i allmänhet och den tidiga filmens i synnerhet, försöka bidra till förståelsen av den tidiga filmens roll, eller roller, i de sociala och politiska förändringar som präglade det svenska samhället i början av 1900-talet. Källmaterialet utgörs av aktualitets- och journalfilmer från mellan 1908 och 1914 med representationer av svenska förstamajdemonstrationer. Materialet analyseras utifrån två övergripande frågeställningar: Hur representerades den svenska arbetarrörelsen av den tidiga filmens producenter i Sverige, avseende de analytiska kategorierna mis-en-scéne, montage och narrativ?  Hur kan vi genom dessa representationer förstå den tidiga Svenska filmens roll i de processer av social och politisk förändring som präglade landet vid början av 1900-talet? Då den första frågeställningen avser förklara hur arbetarrörelsen framställdes, exempelvis på långt eller nära avstånd, eller som del i en större berättelse, avser den andra undersöka framställningarnas betydelse i den historiska kontexten.

ABSTRACT. Præsentationen tager udgangspunkt i analysen af koncentrationslejren som ekstremsamfund, hvor aktørernes interaktion ikke kun havde betydning for deres individuelle og kollektive overlevelseschancer, men hvor det er tesen, at denne også kom til at påvirke eftertidens billede af lejren gennem retsopgør og erindringskultur.

Analysens udgangspunkt og case er koncentrationslejren Husum-Schwesing, en af den store koncentrationslejr Neuengammes filiallejre. Tidligere forskning begrænser sig til kortere empiriske/strukturorienterede bidrag af Klaus Bästlein (1983), Friedrich Pingel og Thomas Steensen (2004), Marc Buggeln (2009) samt Jørgen Barfod (1969/1995). Nærværende analyse har derimod et aktørorienteret, sociologisk inspireret fokus med udgangspunkt i sociologerne Wolfgang Sofskys (1993) og Maja Suderlands (2009) analyser af fangesamfundet. KZ-lejren opfattes her som et ekstremsamfund med polariserede aktørgrupper. Teoretisk diskuteres her menneskers interaktion i ekstreme samfundsformer og interaktionsmønstrenes påvirkning af eftertidens opgør med denne samfundstype. Det er tesen, at fangernes interaktion qua deres baggrund som individ eller gruppe påvirkede såvel deres egen erindring som også eftertidens billede af lejrens historie, da særligt ressourcestærke fanger og fangegrupper gennem deres vidnesbyrd havde afgørende indflydelse på, hvordan dette billede blev tegnet. Et samlet sociologisk-aktørorienteret studie af fangesamfundets betydning for en kz-lejrs samtid og efterliv i form af retsopgør samt erindringskultur og -politik er ikke tidligere gennemført. Empirisk er koncentrationslejren Husum-Schwesing en interessant case, hvor særligt de ressourcestærke danske fangers erindring har været med til at forme eftertidens billede og udgør en rød tråd mellem kz-lejrens samtid og efterliv.

Præsentationen vil primært diskutere fangesamfundets dynamik i lejrens samtid og ud fra dette give et bud på, hvorfor specifikke aktørgrupper efterfølgende kom til at dominere eftertidens billede af koncentrationslejren Husum-Schwesing. Hertil inddrages få eksempler fra retsopgøret og den relativt sene lokale erindringskulturelle bearbejdning af koncentrationslejrens eksistens og historie.

ABSTRACT. När kriget mellan Ryssland och Tyskland bröt ut den första augusti 1914 befann sig flera hundratusentals undersåtar till de krigförande länderna utomlands eller till och med i fiendelandet. När andra länder drogs med i kriget ökade antalet människor som befann sig på fel sida av gränsen. På grund av fronten gick den enda öppna vägen mellan Ryssland och Centraleuropa under en lång tid över storfurstendömet Finland och det neutrala Sverige som därigenom båda blev så kallade transitländer. Planerandet av resor, mat, eventuell sjukvård och utbytet av krigsfångar var redan i sig en logistisk utmaning för myndigheterna. Till detta kom alla "tvångsmigranter" som ofta tvingades lämna efter sig sin egendom och som hade brister i sina dokument. Detta paper kommer att koncentrera sig på hur denna transittrafik över de bägge länderna arrangerades och på vilka grunder samt vid sidan av det vad trafiken innebar för gränsövergången vid det mest frekventerade övergångsstället mellan Finland och Sverige, det vill säga Torneå och Haparanda? Det finns mycket litet angett om detta i finsk forskning i motsats till Sverige, vilket öppnar upp för jämförelser mellan de bägge länderna. Temat i sig är relevant med tanke på den samhälleliga diskussionen kring flyktingar och migration.

ABSTRACT. Sesjonen vil ta for seg ulike aspekter ved Thomas von Westens liv og virke.von Westen (1682–1727) var prest, misjonsleder for misjonen blant den samiske befolkning i Norge og leder for flere seminarier i Trondheim som hadde til formål å utdanne misjonærer, kateketer og skolelærere for det nordlige Norge. Han hadde også samarbeid med de svenske myndigheter om misjonsspørsmål blant svenske samer. Han hadde teologisk og språklig utdannelse fra Universitetet i København, og han var ansatt av Misjonskollegiet i København mens han utførte sitt arbeid tilknyttet misjonen blant samene i Norge. Sesjonen vil ha tre framlegg. 

1. Randi Skjelmo: «Thomas von Westen – utdanning og prestekall». Skjelmo tar for seg hans tidlige år i Trondheim, utdanningsfasen ved katedralskole og ulike universitetsstudier i København. Dessuten tas opp von Westens første prestekall på Vedøy i Norge og hans medlemskap i det pietistiske broderskapet Syvstjernen. 
2. Liv Helene Willumsen: «Thomas von Westens misjonsreiser». Hun går inn på von Westens tre misjonsreiser, hvorav de to første gikk til Finnmark og den tredje så langt nord som til Tromsø. Framlegget vil vektlegge von Westens aktivitet på disse misjonsreisene samt gå inn på hvordan de første misjonærene ble instruert, plassert og organisert nord i Norge. 
3. Daniel Lindmarks framlegg tar for seg Thomas von Westens brev til det svenske presteskapet av 1723. Framlegget vil fokusere på samarbeidet mellom prestene på begge sider av Kjølen og von Westens rolle som kommunikator i forhold til den svenske offentligheten. Lindmark vil også reise spørsmålet hvorvidt pietistisk innflytelse har vært til stede ved Riksdagens innføring av skoleinstruksen av 1723 og praktiseringen av denne. 

Sesjonens organiserer: Liv Helene Willumsen liv.willumsen@uit.no Deltakere: Daniel Lindmark, Professor, Umeå Universitet, Sverige Randi Hege Skjelmo, Førsteamanuensis, UiT - Universitetet i Tromsø, Norges arktiske universitet, Norge Liv Helene Willumsen, Professor, UiT - Universitetet i Tromsø, Norges arktiske universitet, Norge

ABSTRACT. Sessionen analyserar kyrkligt historiebruk vid början av 1900-talet och under 2000-talet. I fokus för sessionens tre presentationer står den inflytelserike nobelpristagaren och Svenska kyrkans ärkebiskop Nathan Söderblom (1866–1931). De två inledande presentationerna tar fasta på hur reformationen användes av Söderblom som modell för kyrklig självförståelse och som drivkraft för kyrkopolitisk förändring. I sessionens avslutande presentation behandlas istället Svenska kyrkans sätt att använda minnet av Söderblom i nutidens religiösa landskap. Söderbloms insatser för ekumenik och fredsarbete under 1910- och 1920-talet var betydelsefulla försök att skapa dialog och samarbete mellan kyrkor i en tid av växande politisk misstro och religiös identitetsformering baserad på nationella anspråk. Han blev i det närmaste ikoniserad under sin livstid och sågs som en ekumenisk ledare. Reformationshistorien var betydelsebärande både för hans sätt att tolka samtidens utmaningar och att formulera krav på förändring och kyrkligt reformarbete. Söderblom argumenterade exempelvis för att Sverige borde axla den världshistoriska uppgiften att ena de reformatoriska kyrkorna – liksom landet en gång tidigare hade agerat för att rädda reformationen åt världen. Sessionen anlägger nya perspektiv på Söderbloms historiskt färgade kyrkosyn och den roll han spelat för Svenska kyrkans självförståelse. Presentationerna belyser hur Söderblom använde minnet av reformationen för att beskriva Svenska kyrkans egenart i relation till andra kyrkor och för att genomföra samhällelig och kyrklig förändring. Dessutom diskuteras hur Söderblom relaterade kyrkohistoriska narrativ till platser, rum och samtida händelser samt hur han använde historien som utgångspunkt för krav på reformer och framtidsvisioner. Sammantaget ger de tre presentationerna en fördjupad förståelse av hur Söderblom ledde Svenska kyrkan in i moderniteten samtidigt som han blickade bakåt mot reformationen. Men analysen stannar inte där utan synliggör historiebrukets kontinuitet genom att Söderbloms egen kyrkohistoriska roll kommit att bilda meningsskapande narrativ för nutida företrädare för Svenska kyrkan i deras försök att identifiera lösningar på samtida utmaningar.

OPLÆG:

1. Stina Fallberg Sundmark (Uppsala universitet, Sverige): ”Så hava också edra förfäder tänkt”. Nathan Söderblom som värnare av det kyrkliga kulturarvet
2. Carl Sjösvärd Birger (Uppsala universitet, Sverige): “Birgitta är vår“: Nathan Söderbloms tal ”Birgitta och reformationen” (1916) i historiografisk belysning
3. Carola Nordbäck (Mittuniversitetet, Sverige): Arvet efter Nathan Söderblom: Historiskt meningsskapande under 2000-talet

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

”Så hava också edra förfäder tänkt”. Nathan Söderblom som värnare av det kyrkliga kulturarvet
Presentatör: Stina Fallberg Sundmark, Uppsala universitet

Idag förekommer ett ökat intresse för frågor som rör kulturarvet –inte minst det kyrkliga. Tiden kring förra sekelskiftet däremot gav på många sätt uttryck för kritiska eller nonchalanta förhållningssätt till äldre tiders kyrkobyggnader och kyrkliga konst. Nathan Söderbloms ärkebiskopstid 1914-1931 sammanföll dock med ett pånyttfött intresse för de medeltida kyrkorummen och den kyrkliga konsten. Såsom ärkebiskop och ordförande för Svenska fornminnesföreningen ville Söderblom få till stånd en förändring av rådande syn på äldre tiders – inte minst medeltidens –kyrkorum, kyrkliga bilder och inventarier och han kom att fungera som en viktig aktör i detta arbete. Ett redskap för att åter värdesätta detta blev hans betoning av kontinuiteten med den svenska reformationen, främst representerad genom ärkebiskopen Laurentius Petri (1531–1573), som visade stor acceptans gentemot medeltidens kyrkobruk, kyrkorum och kyrkliga konst, vilket innebar att helgonbilder av trä och målningar på väggar och i valv bevarades. Detta förhållningssätt framhåller Söderblom som föredömligt. Syftet med denna presentation är att analysera hur Söderblom i sina tal vid återöppnandet av kyrkobyggnader efter restaurering talar om det aktuella kyrkorummet och hur han motiverar dess fortsatta existens. Ett perspektiv kretsar övergripande kring Söderbloms historiemedvetenhet och historiebruk, det vill säga hur han sätter in kyrkorummen i ett historiskt sammanhang och hur han använder sig av historien som motivering och redskap för att genomföra förändring av sin egen tids syn på äldre kyrkorum. Ett annat perspektiv är det ecklesiologiska, det vill säga hur Söderblom talar om vad kyrkan är ur olika aspekter, bland annat om kyrkorummet som gudstjänstrum och rum för andlig gemenskap, som socialt rum och som historiskt rum. 

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“Birgitta är vår: Nathan Söderbloms tal ”Birgitta och reformationen” (1916) i historiografisk belysning 
Presentatör: Carl Sjösvärd Birger, Uppsala universitet 

1916 höll Nathan Söderblom ett tal i Vadstena med titeln ”Birgitta och reformationen” om Birgitta av Vadstena (ca 1303–1373) och hans förståelse av henne som en gestalt i Svenska kyrkans historia. Talet var en del i uppmärksammandet av det kommande reformationsjubileet 1917 och kom snabbt i tryck. Det skapade blandade reaktioner och har ibland betraktats som en milstolpe för Birgittarörelsen under 1900-talet kopplad till Vadstena och den liturgiska rörelsen i Sverige. Inom Svenska kyrkan vid denna tid betonade man ofta uppbrottet genom reformationen från den medeltida, romersk-katolska kyrkan som centralt för den svenska, evangelisk--‐ lutherska identiteten. Under det svenska enhetssamhället var dessutom tolkningen av kyrkan tätt sammantvinnad med en nationell självförståelse. Detta ledde exempelvis till en antikatolicism och den romersk-katolska kyrkan, dess tro och riter, kunde uppfattas som hot mot en historiskt given kollektiv självförståelse genom att sätta den kyrkliga och nationella enheten i gungning. Birgitta levde före reformation och betraktades därför av många som ”romersk”. Söderblom slår i sitt tal fast att Birgitta tillhörde Svenska kyrkans historia och att det var samma kyrka i hans samtid som under Birgittas tid. Söderblom tycks alltså bryta med den historieförståelse som präglat uppfattningar om Svenska kyrkan och reformationen i Sverige. Vilken förståelse av kyrkohistorien styr Söderbloms tolkning av Birgitta och hur påverkar denna förståelse synen på Svenska kyrkan? Syftet med detta paper är att diskutera talet om Birgitta ur ett historiografiskt perspektiv. Det handlar om att undersöka vilket historiemedvetande som framträder hos Söderblom och styr tolkningen av Birgitta och kyrkan, samt att kontextualisera detta historiemedvetande i relation till bakgrundsfaktorer och samtida historieuppfattning. Ett mål är att ge ett bidrag till förståelsen av hur samband mellan historiemedvetande och kyrkosyn kan ta sig uttryck.

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Arvet efter Nathan Söderblom: Historiskt meningsskapande under 2000-talet
Presentatör: Carola Nordbäck, Mittuniversitetet

Syftet med detta paper är att undersöka hur minnet av Nathan Söderblom manifesterats i samband med de historiska jubileer som skett under 2000-talet. Vilken nutida självförståelse formuleras av Svenska kyrkans nutida företrädare med utgångspunkt i Nathan Söderbloms roll under det tidiga 1900-talet? Vad berättar historiebruket runt Söderblom om hur Svenska kyrkan använder det förflutna för att identifiera och möta utmaningar och initiera förändring idag? Presentationen belyser samtidigt en mer omfattande fråga som handlar om hur kollektiv erinran iscensätts rituellt i Svenska kyrkans bruk av det förflutna och hur platser, rum och artefakter samspelar med historiska narrativ inom ramen för sådan reaktualisering. Den plats som särskilt förknippas med Söderblom är Uppsala domkyrka. Detta kyrkorum är dessutom starkt präglat av reformationshistorien. Där utspelades även det svenska reformationsjubileet 1917 – med Nathan Söderblom som ärkebiskop. Sist och slutligen har även Söderblom själv och minnet av honom blivit en del av detta kyrkorum eftersom det är Söderbloms gravplats. Det har samtidigt fungerat som det främsta ceremoniella jubileumsrummet för Svenska kyrkan. I presentationen problematiseras de kyrkliga minnesriterna med utgångspunkt i frågor kring materialitet, temporal cyklicitet och linearitet. I fokus är den cykliska sammanflätningen av olika då och nu. Diskussionen kring minnet av Söderblom kan därmed ge en fördjupad förståelse av hur kollektiva minnen etableras inom ramen för kulturell minnesproduktion samt hur de dekontextualiseras och reaktualiseras.

ABSTRACT. The Nordic countries underwent a process of profound economic progress in the 19th and early 20th century. The industrialization process changed the economic structures and the division of labour. Trade on foreign markets boomed and business life was reorganized in many aspects. In contemporary words one may say that the Nordic area became an emerging market characterized by rapid technological progress, new ventures and opportunities. One of the profound changes behind the transition of economic life was the liberalization of economic activities. The Liberalization of economic policy and trade facilitated emerging new business and new corporate structures. Additionally, the growing wage-labour market opened up for new occupations, increased labour force mobility and improved standards of living. But the emerging wage labour market also challenged the role of the family and traditional forms of assurance from life's uncertainty. Measures against accidents and sickness were urgent in the emerging industrial society.

The Nordic countries show many similarities, but also important differences in the process of economic modernisation and industrialization. A comparative analysis may therefore offer more insights into the mechanisms and cause of events than a single-country study only. With that in mind, we seek to organize a session that provides a comparative Nordic perspective on reforms and social and economic aspects taking place during the phase of industrialization. It will contribute with insights on the liberalization of economic activities taking place in the early phase of industrialization. The session also put focus on the role of labour force mobility by tracing the emigration of Nordic engineers. We offer insights on the situation of women's possibilities in the emerging labour market by examine reforms and outcomes of labour market protection laws and maternity insurance.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Pål Sandvik (Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Norge): Liberaliseringen av de nordiske økonomiene før 1870. En komparasjon.
2. Andreas Dugstad Sanders (EUI, Italien) & Pål Sandvik (Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Norge): Regulering av naturressurser i Norden 1880-1940.
3. Per-Olof Grönberg (Luleå tekniske universitet, Sverige): The peregrine profession, international mobility of Nordic engineers 1880-1930.
4. Lars Fredrik Andersson (Umeå universitet, Sverige): Folkrörelsernas betydelse för socialförsäkringens organisering i Sverige 1880-1910.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Pål Thonstad Sandvik, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet
Liberaliseringen av de nordiske økonomiene før 1870

I 1870 hadde de nordiske landene markedsbaserte økonomier hvor alle mannlige borgere hadde samme økonomiske rettigheter. Politisk bestemte etableringshindringer i form av privilegier, laugsvesen og ulike former for stavnsbånd og pliktarbeid var i all hovedsak forsvunnet eller opphevet. Med noen unntak kunne alle typer varer, tjenester og eiendom fritt kjøpes og selges. Prisene ble bestemt i markedet. Også utenrikshandelen var liberalisert.
 

Hundre år tidligere hadde de nordiske økonomiene vært organisert etter helt andre prinsipper. De skandinaviske samfunnene var den gang det Douglass North, John Wallis og Barry Weingast har kalt «limited access societies», der borgernes økonomiske utfoldelsesmuligheter i stor grad var bestemt gjennom arv eller politisk status. Daron Acemoğlu og James A. Robinson har senere beskrevet samme fenomen i mer spisset form med begrepet «extractive societies», med det mener de en økonomisk orden der et lite mindretall kontrollerer makten og velstandens kilder – og der flertallet blir holdt økonomisk nede ved hjelp av ulike typer tvangsmidler.
I hundreåret frem mot 1870 ble altså de politiske og økonomiske spillereglene i Skandinavia grunnleggende endret. Ikke bare ble gamle privilegier, tvangstiltak og reguleringer avskaffet, de sosiale hierarkiene ble også myket opp. Det var fortsatt store økonomiske forskjeller mellom høy og
lav, men det var ikke lenger formelle barrierer som gjorde det vanskelig eller umulig å arbeide seg oppover. I 1870 var de skandinaviske landene blitt det North, Wallis & Weingast og Acemoğlu & Robinson har kalt henholdsvis «open access societies» og «inclusive societies».
De overnevnte forfatterne har skrevet noen av de mest innflytelsesrike arbeidene som har kommet i senere tid om utviklingen innenfor politisk økonomi. Deres primære bidrag er analysen av institusjoners betydning for politisk stabilitet og økonomisk vekst. Forfatterne har imidlertid blitt kritisert for at de i vel stor grad har brukt den engelske og den anglo-amerikanske utviklingen som et referansepunkt for hva som oppfattes som endring i positiv (dvs, inclusive) retning, at endringsprosesser blir mangelfullt forklart og at tilnærmingen til tider kan bli vel svart-hvit. Det finnes få mellomposisjoner. Institusjonene er enten gode eller dårlige og samfunnene har enten extractive eller inclusive karakter. Like fullt synes selve begrepsparene nyttige i den forstand at de kan fange sentrale utviklingstrekk, også i de nordiske samfunn.
Francis Fukuyama har på sin side brukt «Getting to Denmark» som en metafor på den sentrale utfordringen som mange av verdens stater fortsatt står overfor, nemlig hvordan samfunn med sterke extractive trekk på fredelig vis kan forvandles til å bli stabile, velfungerende og mer inkluderende. Tre av hans overordnede poenger har særlig relevans for denne undersøkelsen. Det første er at man sjelden finner lineære eller rettlinjede utviklingsforløp. Reformprosesser kan bli stanset, reversert eller kapret av særinteresser. Det andre er betydningen av å undersøke slike samfunnstransformasjoner i land med andre typer statstradisjoner enn den anglosaksiske. Det tredje er vektleggingen av potensialet for statsdrevet reform, noe som ble viktig i blant annet Danmark.
 

Fukuyama gir ikke selv noen detaljert analyse av den danske utviklingen. Danmark brukes primært metaforisk og han legger til at fenomenet egentlig gjelder hele Skandinavia. Dette paperet handler derfor om hele regionen, inklusive Finland. En sammenligning av de fire landene kan identifisere mønstre som går tapt i mer nasjonalt orienterte studier. Komparasjonen kan derfor gi bedre innsikt i hvordan og hvorfor reformprosessene kom i gang og hvorfor de til tider stanset opp. Artikkelen analyserer kun et avgrenset felt, nemlig økonomisk reform og institusjonell endring før 1870, og mer spesifikt; Når, hvordan og hvorfor ble de økonomiske privilegiene og reguleringene opphevet i de nordiske land?

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Andreas Dugstad Sanders (EUI), Pål Thonstad Sandvik og Espen Storli (Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet)
Regulering av naturressurser i Norden 1880-1940
 

Dette bidraget undersøker hvordan de fire nordiske statene regulerte naturressursene. Spørsmålet som reises er hvorvidt det fantes en ‘nordisk’ måte å regulere naturressursene. Vi konkluderer med at de nordiske landene ønsket å nå tre hovedmål ved hjelp av sine reguleringsregimer. 1) sikre nasjonalt eierskap av naturressursene, 2) utnytte naturressursene til å sikre økonomisk vekst 3) bruke ressursene på måter som kunne komme store befolkningsgrupper til gode. Det var imidlertid ikke alltid mulig å oppnå alle tre hovedmål samtidig, man måtte derfor prioritere mellom dem. Landene var også ulike med hensyn til både økonomisk utviklingsnivå og ressursgrunnlag. I praksis ble derfor ressurspolitikken noe forskjellig i de fire landene. Bidraget viser også at utviklingen mot økt statlig styring av naturressursene begynte før 1914. Det argumenteres for at de nasjonale reguleringene ikke var en reaksjon på kollapsen av den første globale økonomien, men at de like mye må forstås som nasjonale politiske reaksjoner på den ekspanderende internasjonale økonomien før 1914.

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Per-Olof Grönberg, Luleå tekniske universitet 

The peregrine profession, international mobility of Nordic engineers 1880-1930

This paper examines international mobility of 12.376 technical school graduates in the Nordic countries between 1880 and 1919. Somewhat over 50% went abroad, mostly to North America and the German speaking countries of Europe. Finland and Norway note higher percentages than Denmark and Sweden, mainly because of a long time lack of domestic technical universities and lower degrees of industrialization. While a minority of the graduates settled for a good, the main pattern can be characterized as “target migration” to gain experience, either through a short study trip, temporary employment or studies at a renowned technical university. About 70% of the graduates returned to the Scandinavian countries, while return to Finland exceeded 90%. In early twentieth century Finland and Norway, more than 40% of the engineering corps had foreign experience, while the shares for Denmark and Sweden lay between 15 and 25%. If people act in accordance with new patterns over time and space, they can make the surrounding re-evaluate inborn thoughts and methods and this implies change. The returnees became important fields like rationalisation and labour-management relations, but brought also technical change to the electrical industry, shipbuilding, steel and iron industry, mining and architecture.

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Liselotte Eriksson (Umeå Universitet) and Lars Fredrik Andersson (Umeå Universitet)
Scandinavian labor market protection and maternity insurance in early twentieth century

Since the late 19th century, Western countries have implemented a wide range of public insurance programs. In many countries, the evolution of public insurance has been modelled on cooperative, mutual insurance funds. Especially sickness insurance funds have been recognized for their
importance, not only as forerunners to public insurance but also for risk sharing, risk transferring and loss mitigation. By reducing risks related to sickness, illness and accident, sickness funds improved social welfare.
 

In a society with a lack of sufficient medical care for the majority and where epidemics flourished due to insanitary living conditions and illnesses like pneumonia and tuberculosis caused thousands of lives annually, sickness- and burial funds performed an important task. However, a state that could imply great danger and cause both death and misery in mid nineteenth century was pregnancy. In many families there were many women that were sole providers for the family and in several working class households the wife’s salary was essential to ensure the necessary minimum income. The lack of possibility to work and provide for her family naturally affected unmarried women the most. A discourse, dominating political decisions, where unmarried mothers had no place in the public sphere and the ideology of the male breadwinner model, caused a discrepancy between reality where unmarried mothers counted for a large share and where both unmarried and married women had to work to secure a sufficient income.
 

Although researchers have investigated the evolution of sickness-, accident- and pension insurance few have recognized the importance of the implementation of public maternity insurance. It did e.g. not, in the case of America, see to the needs of women for maternity insurance. This paper addresses this issue by comparing the evolution of welfare reforms attributed to maternity insurance.

ABSTRACT. Using the technology of Geographical Information System (GIS) is relatively new in historical research. Since the late 1990s, however, awareness of its potential has been growing among historian so that we can now speak of a new field, historical GIS. The GIS technology allows us to link vast amounts of different historical data, e.g. text, numbers, pictures, with location which enables the historian to integrate, analyse and visualize data in innovative ways. New historical projects proliferate and the diversity is remarkable both in terms of geographical scope, subject matter and methodology. Many projects are concerned with mapping of land use, the reconstruction of past landscapes or demographic, social and economic patterns and structures, while others deal with events and social and cultural practices. Some may focus on a single point in time, others make comparisons over time. The session provides a forum for discussion on some of the conceptual and technical challenges facing historical GIS as well as the possibilities and opportunities it offers historians. Where does historical GIS research stand in the Nordic countries?

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Janne Holmén: Past and Present in the Minds of Secondary School Students: A Bottom-up Approach to Mental Mapping in the Baltic and Mediterranean Rim.
2. Guðmundur Jonsson: The pillars of rural society: Family and household economy in early eighteenth century Iceland.
3. Óskar Guðlaugsson: The Icelandic farm household at the beginning of the 18th century.

ABSTRACT. This session examines the “Transformations of the Man of Letters from the Age of Reformation to the Age of Revolution”. The title conveys a possible double meaning, in the sense that “Transformations of the Man of Letters” refers both to the agent transforming and the one being transformed. Placing, thus, the “Man of Letters” at the centre of the discussion, the session explores three intertwined, yet distinct themes, all related to the ethos or persona of the “Man of Letters” and how it changed between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. The first theme relates to power/knowledge, that is, how the power and influence of the “Man of Letters” is gained by creating a specific ethos or persona devoted to truth and the creation of moral authority. The second theme relates to structure and agency: How is the possibility of local agency gained through the appeal to the Republic of Letters, and how is this network upheld by the actions of specific agents, i.e. “Men of Letters”? This singles out the interplay between the local and the trans-local as different spaces of action, that is, how local spaces of power/influence such as courts, national publics or universities interact with trans-local spaces and communities such as the Republic of Letters. The third theme relates to the question of intellectual context. What languages or discourses does the “Man of Letters” speak, with what modes of thought does he engage and what does he reject? Focusing on the transformations of the “Man of Letters”, the session contributes not only to our current understanding of the intellectual history of the Republic of Letters, but also to our understanding of the creation and function of moral and political authority in the period between the “Age of Reformation” and “the Age of Revolution”.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Kaarlo Havu (University of Helsinki): "The Rhetorical Authority of the Erasmian Republic of Letters."

2. Mads Langballe Jensen (Royal Holloway, University of London): "The natural lawyer between Lutheran orthodoxy and absolutist enlightenment in early eighteenth century Copenhagen."

3. Brian Kjær Olesen (European University Institute): "The Persona of the Philosopher in the Early Northern Enlightenment."

4. Jonas Gerlings (University of Copenhagen): "From Persona to Profession: Kant and the Professionalization of the Man of Letters in the Enlightenment."

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

1 • The Rhetorical Authority of the Erasmian Republic of Letters
Kaarlo Havu (University of Helsinki)

The Erasmian Republic of Letters (early 16th century) has often been seen as a retreat from tumultuous worldly affairs to a private space (otium) where spirituality and friendship could be cultivated in the company of other like-minded humanists (Furey 2006). Among the men of letters of the Republic, the cultivation of one’s intellectual and piritual qualities could, however, serve as one of the preconditions for the realization of the ideals of active life (negotium) in the service of the political community. This paper connects two modes of cultivating or evoking ethos to two classical discursive practices; conversation (sermo) and rhetoric (oratio). While conversation implied the recognition of the other as a participant in a discussion with epistemological aims in the world of leisure (otium), rhetoric conceptualized the recipient mostly through metaphors that highlighted discursive power in the conflictual world of negotium. The paper argues that the intellectual ethos stemming partly from one’s participation in the discursive practices of the Erasmian Republic of Letters was often turned into rhetorical authority in local debates by humanists like Erasmus, Juan Luis Vives, Guillaume Budé, and many others. Thus, rather than a retreat, the Republic of Letters served as a possibility for an ethical life of negotium, both conceptually and in practice.

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3 • The Persona of the Philosopher in the Early Northern Enlightenment
Brian Kjær Olesen (European University Institute)

This paper deals with the Danish-Norwegian writer Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754) and the changing perception of the persona of the philosopher in the early Enlightenment. Already from an early stage in his intellectual career, the persona of the philosopher was crucial to the way in which Holberg cultivated himself as a man of letters. Like  ther early Enlightenment thinkers, Holberg understood the persona of the philosopher as a form of social office. Comprised of a specific range of duties and responsibilities, the concrete meaning of the philosophical office, however, varies according to changing circumstances – institutionally, intellectually and politically. As the paper argues, Holberg’s perception of philosophy develops along two distinct, yet intertwined lines of contestation. On the one hand, Holberg contrasts philosophy to Lutheran theology and its claimto moral authority. Holberg initiated this rejection of theology in his early works, most notable his treatise on natural law, in which he depicts the philosopher, mastering both history and natural law, as an ideal advisor to the prince. On the other hand, Holberg contrasts the office of philosophy to what he considers a false philosophical persona. Philosophical activity, he argues, comprises not metaphysics and contemplation, but intellectual enquiry, criticism, and conversation. The principal aim of philosophy is the education of the public. Embracing this sentiment, the paper argues, Holberg has moved in the direction of the Republic of Letters. Hence, situating Holberg between the tradition of modern natural law and the Republic of Letters, the paper identifies a shift in Holberg’s thinking from the philosopher as the advisor to the prince to the philosopher as a public moralist.

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4 • From Persona to Profession: Kant and the Professionalization of the Man of Letters in the Enlightenment
Jonas Gerlings (University of Copenhagen)

The transnational community known as the Republic of Letters has been regarded constitutive for the cultivation of a detached, depersonalized, and disembodied style of Enlightenment thought; however, for more than a decade, historians have turned their focus towards the North-eastern corner of Europe where an opposing trend emerged: In line with the growing influence of the state, ideas of Enlightenment concerned with historical development and local difference were cultivated. This paper investigates the interconnection between these two Enlightenment cultures by revisiting the transformation of the Enlightenment figure Immanuel Kant. Kant’s scholarly persona is most often seen as epitomising the first Enlightenment culture. Contrary to this common conception, this paper argues that Kant should be seen as a figure bridging the two cultures.

ABSTRACT. In early modern Europe, certain metals, such as copper, were essential to everyday life while a rare metal like mercury, was used for more specialised purposes, for instance in medicine. For centuries European metal production remained on a fairly uniform level, implying that the demand and usage of iron and copper items also was stable. From medieval times the main copper producing centres were located to the Alpine Lands, in Harz and Slovakia while mercury was mined at Idrija in Austria and at Almadén in Spain. When the copper ore deposits entered into a phase of decline during the mid-sixteenth century a new – gigantic – source emerged in Sweden; Stora Kopparberg in Falun became the main supplier of European copper for most of the seventeenth century. When Falun went into decline, new centres like Røros in Norway and Swansea in Britain emerged. However, both Sweden and Norway had to rely in import when it came to mercury.

The starting-point of this session is comparative, as it brings together people working on different metal making sites, but its aim is to establish links between the sites in an era of rapidly expanding output. The session also provides a platform for a discussion whether a ‘Great Divergence’ or an ‘age of revolution’ can be detected in metal making. There was revolutionary change, but there was also a gradual adaptation to new – global – conditions within the metal sectors as a whole. The ambition is, furthermore, to emphasize the links tying production to trade and consumption. This means that we include the manufacturing industry in our understanding of metal production. In addition, the markets for Nordic metals and their alloys inside and outside Europe, as well as metal import into the Nordic countries, are a crucial part of our discussion.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Laura Hollsten (Åbo Akademi University, Finland): Mobile metal: the spaces of mercury on its route to Sweden
2. Ragnhild Hutchison (Oslo University, Norway): Implications of the Røros copper trade - nation, region and family
3. Sven Olofsson (Uppsala University, Sweden): Feelings of frustration and steps towards transformation – Falu copper mine and the European copper and brass trade during the
   18th century

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Laura Hollsten (Åbo Akademi University, Finland): Mobile metal: the spaces of mercury on its route to Sweden

Mercury was one of the products regularly imported into Sweden in the seventeenth and Eighteenth centuries. It was extracted in the mercury mines at Idrija in Austria (present day Slovenia) and shipped via Amsterdam to Stockholm. This paper follows the movements of mercury from the cinnabar ore it was mined from, through the mining process and the various legs of its trip into Sweden. The concepts of space and mobility are used as tools in the investigation of the movements of mercury, following it from its subterranean landscape to the various processing operations taking place above ground, and finally into the ships that transported it to its destination. Furthermore, there are toxic spaces all around the ecosystems where mercury, as a result of its fluidity, moved around: turning up in the laboratories of alchemists, apothecaries’ shops, hatters’ workshops and human bodies in its capacity as medicine, poison or pollutant. The paper argues that mercury has been a factor in the increasing geographic mobility of the early modern world; crossing borders while being transported from one country to another and from one continent to another. Much of this mobile activity has been invisible, partly because it has taken place underground, partly because certain forms of mercury pollution are not visible to the eye. Therefore, these spaces can be characterized as invisible spaces even though mercury itself is a material substance.

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Ragnhild Hutchison (Oslo University, Norway): Implications of the Røros copper trade - nation, region and family

Copper was one of the metals that truly became part of the 18th century global trade. Not only was it traded globaly, it is recognised to have played important parts in as varied aspects of history and everyday life as warfare, art, science, housing and cooking both in Europe, Asia, Africa and America. This paper asks what the global copper trade meant for some of the actors who came into contact with it, and how it impacted them. The paper will focus on the copper trade from Trondheim in Norway, and discuss the implications it had for the Danish/ Norwegian state, for the Trøndelag region in Norway and for the Cramer family, one of the smaller shareholders in the Røros copper works in Trøndelag

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Sven Olofsson (Uppsala University, Sweden): Feelings of frustration and steps towards transformation – Falu copper mine and the European copper and brass trade during the 18th century

The copper markets during the eighteenth century were part of a multifaceted transformation which reshaped the production and consumption on a global scale. Swansea in Wales was gradually winning position as the leading European provider of copper, in competition with sites as Neusohl in Hungary, Mansfeld in Thuringia, Röros in Norway and, last but not least, Falu copper mine in Sweden, the largest European producer in the seventeenth century. The aim for this paper is to analyze the copper commodity chain from a Swedish perspective, exploring the links between the changing global market for copper and brass, and individual actors in Sweden involved in different parts of copper business. What kind of events and processes affected the Swedish part of the global copper market and how did Swedish producers, merchants and state officials respond to changes on the global market?

ABSTRACT. This panel session aims to explore some of the challenges and possibilities that digital media create for research and consumption of history. The internet and digitalization enable new methods of research with access to huge and different types of data. It is possible to study interaction and involvement of large groups of ordinary people, to explore reactions to different types of representations of the past and to trace, through digital archives, developments within visual popular culture. Yet, the fluidity, fragmentation and sheer magnitude of digital sources create the need to rethink some of our research strategies. How do we approach these types of sources and huge data sets? Indeed, the selection and preservation of digital sources pose challenges in itself and may have huge influences on what can be researched and remembered in the future. Moreover, digital media allows for fast, unregulated and unlimited distribution of representations of history and memory. While this allows for public engagement and democratization of history and memory debates, it also raises questions about ownership, authenticity and qualification of historical data and interpretations The panel consists of three case studies based on digital material and one discussion paper that situates the three cases in a digital historiographical context.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Helle Strandgaard Jensen (University of Aarhus): The archive as agent: What happens when digital archives make television history?.
2. Caroline Nyvang (The Royal Library): Identifying grief – online.
3. Tea Sindbæk Andersen (University of Copenhagen): The First World War on Facebook.
   
   The session concludes with a comment and short discussion paper:
4. Anne Sørensen (Aarhus University/danmarkshistorien.dk): Historiography of the digital.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

The archive as agent: What happens when digital archives make television history?
Helle Strandgaard Jensen, University of Aarhus
 

My paper will be centred on a discussion of the digitalisation of television history and its implications for media historiography. I will combine an analysis of the institutional creation of digital online archives (the making of European and national television history 'from above') with an analysis the increased presence of online television histories written by laymen (the making of television history 'from below'). Relating these two activities to one another, I will outline how digitalisation can be seen as highly influential on new television historiography on a European as well as a national level. I will
combine my theoretical discussion with a practical example, namely my own experiences with writing a history of the transfer of the American show Sesame Street to Europe in the 1970s. When I work on this project, I use the digital archives of a number of different European television broadcasters from Danish DR to Italian RAI, pan-European archives such as EU Screen and Birth of Television, as well as a wide range of user-generated online material (wikis, blogs, webpages). My concrete experiences have raised questions about what possible approaches are available to media historians dealing with existing communities of memory – national and pan-European – and what an etic for the politics of history would look like in the light of an increasing mediatisation of television history and other media histories.

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Identifying grief – online
Caroline Nyvang, The Royal Library

Recent studies have indicated that virtual communities seldom take the place of offline communities, but rather fulfill needs and wants that are not met elsewhere.
This forms the basis of this paper’s assumption that the Internet also enables grieving practices, which differ from those that take place offline. For instance, online communities allow bereaved to accept condolences beyond the accepted grieving period, and the Internet expands the number of potential mourners by including users without a direct relation to the deceased. In these ways, the Internet facilitates a new public awareness around grief that permits us to study contemporary grieving processes and investigate how these might differ from former ways of managing grief.
By systematically mapping Danish online memorial sites from the years 2005-14, the focus in this paper is on grief as it has been expressed in relation to death. By comparing my results with existing studies of former and contemporary offline grieving practices I will examine how changes in the interaction surrounding death might affect the ways in which Danes express grief and produce memorials. Furthermore, I will use the particular case to discuss the overall challenges and possibilities involved in tracing cultural phenomena online.

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The First World War on Facebook
Tea Sindbæk Andersen, University of Copenhagen

The centenary of the First World War caused a wave of intensified commemoration activities all over Europe. It also highlighted the fact that the war is understood and remembered very differently across the continent, both with regard to history writing, public commemoration and more vernacular
approaches to history and history-making. This paper investigates how the First World War is being presented and discussed on Facebook pages with a First World War theme in three European countries: Denmark: a country that was only marginally involved in the war (except from the Danish minority in Northern Germany); Croatia, which experienced the war and subsequently complete break-down of the state structure as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, one of the war’s great losers; and finally Serbia, which were on the war’s winning side, but lost a catastrophic number of soldiers and civilians in the war effort. The paper discusses how the centenary activities are reflected on Facebook; how the different national Facebook communities perceive war history differently, and how and to which extent Facebook users as vernacular historians are involved in the negotiation and production of history.

ABSTRACT. Historians Without Borders (HWB) is based on an association with the same name, established in Finland in 2015 and working as the secretariat of the international network. The network, consisting of historians and politicians, aims at promoting a dialogue and cooperation between academic historians, media and political actors, at pursuing an internationally open and free access to historical materials and sources and at counteracting misuse of history in different parts of the world. Practical ways of reaching the aims are constituted by international symposia and conferences, by publications bringing scholars from different countries together to work towards a dialogue between communities of historical research and memory. The primary pragmatic aim is to counteract the harmful impact of the untenable historical myths on international relations. The first conference of HWB in May 2016 was attended by historians, among them Margaret Macmillan, Jan Behrends, Oran Baskin and Lim Jie Hyun, as well as politicians, among them Erkki Tuomioja (former minister of foreign affairs of Finland and the founder of the association), Martti Ahtisaari, Carl Bildt and Bernard Kouchner. The first publication by the HWB, the anthology 'The use and Abuse of History' (2016) dealt with issues of history politics and the role of history in conflict resolution. The issues HWB aspires to be dealt with in Aalborg, on the level of both theoretical analysis and empirical research opportunities, are constituted by the problems of post-conflict societies in coming to terms with a dark past, and the challenges of historians encountering ´post truth´ discourses in history politics.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Jan Löfström (University of Helsinki, Finland): Revisiting ”Teaching Painful Pasts in Europe”, a project on adolescents’ thinking about handling of historical grievances
2. Oula Silvennoinen (University of Helsinki, Finland): Never-ending War? Internal Conflict and History Culture in 20th Century Finland

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Revisiting ”Teaching Painful Pasts in Europe”, a project on adolescents’ thinking about handling of historical grievances
Jan Löfström

The project Teaching Painful Pasts in Europe was carried out in 2011–2014, with researchers and pedagogues from six countries. It studied what adolescents thought about handling painful chapters of national history. The focal point was the question whether there are transgenerational obligations and rights to reparations of historical injustices and what implications it has. The aim was to contribute to peace education by way of developing tools for history teaching and training of history teachers. The presentation summarises the outcomes of the project and discusses what to take into account if carrying out a new round of the project.

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Never-ending War? Internal Conflict and History Culture in 20^th Century Finland
Oula Silvennoinen

Finland is often seen as a successful Nordic society. Yet Finland’s recent past is saturated by internal conflict, giving rise to peculiarities in Finnish history culture still visible today. A major source of conflict has been the civil war of 1918, which for a long time divided the country according to which side one had belonged to. Post-war politics gave new impetus to this basic ideological rift: re-emergence of the communists led to activation of post-1918 debate in Finnish history culture. I will argue that this debate is still going on and can be analyzed.

ABSTRACT. En av de mer genomgripande reformerna inom ramen för framväxten av det moderna samhället i stora delar av västvärlden var etableringen av ett folkförankrat försvar genom införandet av värnpliktstjänstgöring. Så skedde också i de nordiska länderna, om än vid olika tidpunkter. Värnplikten som personalförsörjningssystem har på inget sätt varit fri från målkonflikter. Exempelvis kom folkförankring och försvarsvilja att ställas mot militär professionalism samtidigt som plikten på sina håll kopplades till politiskt inflytande. I vissa sammanhang sågs värnplikten också som ett sätt för det civila samhället att behålla kontrollen över de väpnade styrkorna.

Ett länge förbisett faktum i forskningen om värnplikten har varit dess genusteoretiska implikationer. Under lång tid sågs värnplikt för ett lands manliga befolkning som synonym med en allmän värnplikt. På senare år har detta synsätt emellertid förändrats. Frågan om värnplikt för såväl kvinnor som män har aktualiserats i den politiska debatten, men också spörsmål om hur ”allmän” denna plikt bör vara.

Denna session syftar till att problematisera den beskrivna utvecklingen genom ett rundabordssamtal rörande olika aspekter av värnpliktstjänstgöring ur ett genusperspektiv. Inläggen spänner från värnpliktens roll i det tidiga 1900-talets rösträttsdebatt till mer samtidshistoriska studier av kvinnlig värnplikt. Särskild vikt kommer att läggas vid komparation mellan olika nordiska länder, spänningen mellan militär och civil kultur, förändringar i samhällets syn på manligt och kvinnligt samt förändringar i medborgarens förhållande till staten. Sessionen leds av Esbjörn Larsson (Uppsala universitet) och har presentatörer från Norge genom Ulla-Britt Lilleaas (Universitetet i Oslo) och Dag Ellingsen (Høgskolen i Oslo og Akershus), Sverige genom Fia Sundevall (Stockholms universitet och Arbetarrörelsens arkiv och bibliotek) och Fredrik Thisner (Försvarshögskolan) samt Finland genom Anders Ahlbäck (Åbo Akademi).

ABSTRACT. The panel discusses about ideological education from the point of view of nation-building in Finland and Estonia in the 1920’s and the 1930’s. After the collapse of the imperial Russia in 1917 both countries reached independence and fell to civil war. These occasions and experiences influenced the unity of nations; understanding on one nation with common culture and values splintered into winners’ patriotic and losers’ socialist values. The panel focuses on formal and informal nation-building strategies, which were directed toward younger generations and were put into operation in the fields of civic education and culture in both countries. 

PRESENTATIONS: 

• Researcher Seija-Leena Nevala discusses the boy and girl organisations of the Finnish voluntary defence movement. 
• Professor Mervi Kaarninen’s paper is about the Red orphans and their upbringing according to White values in Finland. 
• University lecturer Ulla Aatsinki focuses on Finnish socialist education 
• PhD Student Eli Pilve's paper (presented by Mervi Kaarninen) is on Estonian government’s plan of state control over youth organisations

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Title: Phd, researcher Seija-Leena Nevala
Affiliation: University of Tampere, Finland

Abstract: Generations and gender in the voluntary defence movement in Finland 1928-1944

The popularity and influence of the voluntary defence organisations, men’s Civil Guards and women’s Lotta Svärd, was high during the inter-war period in Finland. Especially in the 1920’s they were representatives of the winners of the Civil War and defined the cultural atmosphere. One of their main arguments was the crucial role of home and nuclear family at the heart of society, where individuals would be socialised and educated as patriotic and upstanding citizens. The defence organisations sought to represent a nation in miniature. The future was considered especially important, which is why the “parent organisation” established the youth units for boys and girls. Initially the younger generation was thought to be miniature versions of the adult organisations, but soon it was realised that new attractive forms of activity were needed in order to continue the defence movement’s patriotic ideals. In the 1930’s Finnish society was changing and the defence movement wanted to include majority of the citizens within their ranks. However, it was not possible with the old ideology and the youth were taught to be the representatives of the new values. This paper discusses how the ‘old’ and the ‘new’ were taken into consideration in intergenerational dialogue inside the organisation. In addition to this, the defence family was strongly gendered. This paper examines also if the gender order changed, when there were two generations involved in the defence movement.

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Title: Phd, university lecture Mervi Kaarninen
Affiliation: University of Tampere, Finland
Abstract: Educating the Red orphans to decent citizens
 

The Finnish civil war in 1918 was also children’s war and it touched the life of children and young people in several ways. During the war, many children died. Young people and even children participated in the war on both sides. They fought on the white and red troops. Hundreds of children died due to the lack of food
and care. Children were also taken to prison camps with their parents and conditions at these camps were miserable. About 15 000-20 000 orphaned as a result of the war. Most of the orphaned children were so called “red orphans” whose father or mother or both parents had participated in war on the red side. I analyse how childhood was defined and divided in the upbringing and salvation projects of orphans. The key concepts in my presentation are education, upbringing and values. The aim of the official school policy was to educate the red orphans to be the good citizens. I shall interpret what the concept of the good citizen meant in the newly independent Finland. Before the war the fathers were seen as fighters for a better society and living conditions for the working class and the Finnish proletariat. After the war, when the white Finland had achieved their victory, both fathers and mothers were condemned as betrayers. What did it mean for the orphans that the family values were contradictory to the values of the Finnish nation state? My aim is to interpret the upbringing and education of the orphans as a conflict and a question of values.

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Title: PhD, researcher Ulla Aatsinki
Affiliation: University of Tampere, Finland
Abstract: Children of Revolution. Socialist education in Finland in the early 20th century.

The paper examines socialist education and socialist culture in proletarian communities in Finland in the 1920’s and 1930’s. The labor movement aimed to maintain and strengthen socialist worldview by transferring its cultural heritage, ethical and political values and behavior patterns to children and youth in special educational organisations. Especially after the lost civil war (1918), it was crucial for the Reds to socialize younger generation politically and produce models of socialist citizenship and culture, because Finnish authorities and semi-official youth organisations represented winners’ values and narrowed the citizenship into religious, conservative, and military moulds. I study socialist educational organisations for children and youth, their aims and activity, and success and failures in creating, maintaining and redefining socialist values and identity and passing them to younger generation. Socialist education was spread in all over the country, from the North to the South, and from the West coast to the Eastern provinces of Finland. Authorities saw it as unpatriotic activity and tried to weed it out by legislation and control. The paper basis on primary written data and photos of socialist educational organization.

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Title: PhD Student Eli Pilve
Affiliation: University of Tartu, Estonia
Abstract: Estonian government’s plan of state control over youth organisations

The paper examines state control and youth organisations in authoritarian Estonia in the 1930’s. The Republic of Estonia had a plan to converge youth into a unitary organization and create ideological and cultural values for the planned Estonian Youth. This paper studies how the role of the state started to grow in youth education immediately after the proclamation of independence in 1918 and actualized after the coup of 1934, when the authoritarian regime was established in Estonia. First the state regulated students’
spare time activities in schools, then aimed to influence young people’s life and spare time through educational institutions and practices, and finally set the idea of state-controlled youth organization. Different acts and instructions compiled in 1938 already clearly envisaged the unification of youth organisations into a single state-controlled organisation called Estonian Youth. It also meant disbanding of the spectrum of young people’s independently organised activities, which had been diverse and lively. Estonia was not the only state that pursuit ideological education: All-Union Leninist Young Communist League in the Soviet Union, Hitlerjugend in Germany, Opera Nazionale Balilla in Italy are examples of national youth organisations that were subordinated to centralised supervision by the state in the 1930’s Europe .

ABSTRACT. social welfare from church to state caused major societal changes after the reformation. Sigrund Kahl has argued for the connection between confession and type of welfare system in Europe, between perceptions of work, poverty and responsibility within each of the three large European confessions and the way in which regional welfare systems have developed into the 20th century. In the medieval Catholic Church work was a sign of poverty, of the need to work. Voluntary poverty, as practiced by mendicant orders, was praised as living in the manner of Christ. The poor and sick was the responsibility of the church regardless of the root cause of their poverty. Poor relief was a way of being charitable, and of buying indulgence. Luther undermined this whole system through his rejection of indulgence and the notion of good works. Furthermore he emphasised the duty to work as a way to fulfil the will of God, and despised voluntary poverty as a sign of indolence and ungodliness. Instead social responsibility was built into the social relations of the household and state. The care of the poor and sick became the responsibility of the King as a father for his people, and in daily life of the father of the household. Through three case studies this session will discuss the consequence of the reformations for the development of different welfare systems within the early Nordic welfare system, focusing on Denmark, Sweden and Finland in the 19th century. At the same time the long lines from the reformations to the 19th century will be drawn as well as a comparative perspective on catholic welfare in Ireland.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Nina Koefoed (Aarhus University, Denmark): From the reformation until the early welfare state. Development of poor relief in Denmark in the light of the reformation and Lutheran thoughts
2. Åsa Karlsson Sjögren (Umeå University, Sweden): Making Politics of Poverty. Gender, Religion, and Poor Relief in late eighteenth and nineteenth century Swedish communities
3. Andrew Newby (University of Helsinki, Finland): Religion and the rhetoric of famine relief in nineteenth century Finland and Ireland

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Nina Koefoed (Aarhus University, Denmark): From the reformation until the early welfare state. Development of poor relief in Denmark in the light of the reformation and Lutheran thoughts

Following the Reformation the Danish king, Christian III, issued two ordinances (in 1536 and 1537) establishing hospitals for the poor, organised in former monasteries, and poor relief on a local level for those who could not work because of age or illness. These ordinances indicated that responsibility to ensure the welfare of the poor now resided in the state (personified by the king), and that this responsibility should be organised locally in individual parishes. Both principles were central to the reform of the welfare system in Wittenberg, the formulating of which Luther had participated in. Other central principles were tax-financed poor relief, and outdoor support. This paper will investigate the development of Danish poor law from the reformation until late 19th century, with a focus on the way in which Lutheran principles for work-ethic, social responsibility and poor relief were reflected and thus discuss the influence from the reformation on the structure, organization and legitimization of Danish poor relief. A special focus on the paper will be on the 19th century and a rereading of the social development of the century in the light of the Lutheran heritage and thus a discussion of the extent to which the early welfare state can be said to be influenced by the reformation.

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Åsa Karlsson Sjögren (Umeå University, Sweden): Making Politics of Poverty. Gender, Religion, and Poor Relief in late eighteenth and nineteenth century Swedish communities

The paper focuses on the development of charity and poor relief within local communities in late eighteenth and nineteenth century Sweden. I will analyse interactions, conflicts as well as negotiations, between different actors in ecclesiastical and secular institutions and associations, and discuss how these activities could be understood as a way of making poverty a political field. Middle class men were very much involved in these activities at the beginning of the period, and soon also middle class women took active part in various associations. These activities, which took place within both secular and religious institutions, had all a Lutheran, religious frame. Some certain values could be shared by everyone involved, such as dislike to beggars, and overall to emphasize the duty of work. The work duty was however not uncomplicated. Age, illness, and disability could hinder individuals to make their own living, but also perceptions of gender and class, such as the idea that sensitive middle class women could not take any job offered for their maintenance. Another important issue which will be analysed in the paper was conflicts over how to finance the help to the poor, and whether gifts should be donated voluntarily or if the poor relief should be financed by taxes.

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Andrew Newby (University of Helsinki, Finland): Religion and the rhetoric of famine relief in nineteenth century Finland and Ireland

Both Ireland and Finland – peripheral nations in a European sense but relatively close to their imperial cores (London and St. Petersburg) – suffered devastating famines in the period 1845-1868. This comparative paper will discuss three main themes around famine relief in the nineteenth century: (i) The 1837 Poor Law in Britain and Ireland; (ii) The 1852 Poor Law in autonomous Finland, and; (iii) Private relief and the rhetoric of “improvability.” In both cases, many similarities can be found, not least the use of workhouses and the idea of relief being given in return for labour in order to avoid the “demoralization” of the recipient. In Irish nationalist discourse, this type of relief became strongly associated with an attempt by the British state to reform Catholic Ireland. Conversely, while class and ethnic elements also featured in the British rhetoric, the feckless and indolent nature of the Irish was often attributed to their stubborn Catholicism, and the famine could be presented as a punishment from God. The rhetoric of relief in Finland, although stripped of ethnic or religious overtones, was very similar, reflecting wider European political-economic thought. The private relief efforts of the Quakers provide a useful comparative context as this group was active in both countries. Money raised for the needy was distributed in emergencies. A major Quaker concern, like the legislators in Britain and Finland, was that “inattention to cultivation” should not be caused by gratuitous charity. A network of trusted observers ensured that recipients carried out improvements to their lands. In examining these different contexts, it can be argued that a quasi-religious philosophy underpinned the “work ethic” inherent in poor relief, but the different constitutional situations in Finland and Ireland mattered more than their confessional differences.

ABSTRACT. Sesjonen ønsker å se på hvordan kirkelige reformforsøk, enten internt eller eksternt utløste, gir seg utslag i kirkelig administrasjon på stiftsnivå i de tre nordiskee erkebispedømmene. Vi begrenser ikke sesjonen kronologisk til å gjelde ”Refromasjonen”, men vil se på kirkelig reform fra høymiddelalderen og framover. Det lokale fokuset vil i stor grad være domkapitelene eller andre administrative funskjoner/organ på bispedøemme/erkesetenivå. Vi ønsker å se både på domkaitelens funksjon i høøymiddelalder (Ciardi) og senmiddelalder (Salonen), samt dkapitlenes rolle i den nye lutherske kirkeordningen (Njåstad). Dels vil vi se på forholdene ved erkesetene (Ciardi, Njåstad), dels forholdet mellom erkesete og sufffragangbiskoper (Beitstad, Salonen).

PRÆSENTATIONER:

1. Anna Minara Ciardi (Lunds Universitet, Sverige): Reform och reformation? Katedralkapitel och katedralkultur i Danmark c. 1060–1225
2. Heidi Anett Øvergård Beistad (Stiklestad Nasjonale Kultursenter, Norge): Dedikert pragmatisme i kirkens periferi – biskopens rolle som reformator i Nidarosprovinsen ca. 1150-1300
3. Kirsi Salonen (Turku University, Finland): Formation och reformation – Turku domkapitel under medeltiden
4. Magne Njåstad (Norges teknisk-naturvitenskabelige universitet, Norge): Domkapitlet i Nidaros gjennom reformasjonen

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Anna Minara Ciardi (Lunds Universitet, Sverige): Reform och reformation? Katedralkapitel och katedralkultur i Danmark c. 1060–1225

Katedralkapitlens roll i den medeltida kyrkan var betydande, inte minst genom de viktiga funktioner som man hade och som var omistliga för det kyrkliga livet i allmänhet, d.v.s. liturgiska och legala funktioner, som utbildningsinstitution samt inom administration av t.ex. kyrklig egendom och de trognas offergåvor. Genom sitt nära förhållande till biskopen intog kapitlen och deras medlemmar en unik position i stiftet och utgjorde samtidigt en vital länk mellan den universella kyrkan och den lokala. Livet i och kring katedralen utgjorde därtill en egen kultur, förvisso starkt influerad av såväl den monastiska kulturen och skolastiken, där kapitlets medlemmar fungerade som aktörer i en process av kyrklig traditionsförmedling. Katedralkapitel, dvs. den gemenskap av präster som levde och verkade vid biskopens kyrka, instiftades redan i senantiken men utvecklades under de följande århundradena. Från mitten av 1000-talet och framåt etablerades katedralkapitel i Danmark – först i Roskilde, Lund och Odense. Under perioden 1060–1225 kom dock såväl de äldre som de mer nygrundande institutionerna att både påverkas av och aktivt bidra till ett slags kyrklig reformation, inte minst i kyrkorättsligt avseende. I min presentation kommer jag dels att fokusera katedralkapitlens yttre förutsättningar i den västerländska kyrkan, både ideologiskt och juridiskt, dels återge hur dessa mer allmänna reformer kom att påverka de enskilda danska kapitlen, t.ex. i fråga om observans och helgonkult.

Anna Minara Ciardi (teol.dr.), Centrum för teologi och religionsvetenskap, Lund Universitet

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Heidi Anett Øvergård Beistad (Stiklestad Nasjonale Kultursenter, Norge): Dedikert pragmatisme i kirkens periferi – biskopens rolle som reformator i Nidarosprovinsen ca. 1150-1300

Nidarosprovinsen utgjorde i middelalderen den vestlige kristenhets arktiske ytterpunkt. Pavens motivasjon for å grunnlegge provinsen var tydelig: i det såkalte fundasjonsbrevet instruerer han erkebiskopen til ydmykt å lyde Roma som sin «mor og herskerinne», samt å sørge for at provinsens øvrige biskoper følger hans eksempel. Det høymiddelalderske pavedømmets mål om å etablere en reformert universell kirke hadde nådd periferien og den norrøne erkebiskopen og hans lydbiskoper skulle lede an i den forestående reformen. Mitt paper vil fokusere på hvordan de norrøne biskopene fylte rollen som reformatorer. Dette vil jeg gjøre gjennom å belyse temaet fra to perspektiver: 1) interaksjon mellom de ulike nivåene i det kirkelige hierarkiet og 2) forholdet mellom universalkirkelige regler og lokale tilpasninger. Gjennom dette vil jeg skissere hovedtrekkene ved den høymiddelalderske norrøne reformbiskopen, en skikkelse som kombinerte universalkirkelig lojalitet med en embetsførsel preget av lokalkunnskap. Dette særtrekket ved den norrøne reformprosessen har jeg valgt å kalle dedikert pragmatisme, et fenomen jeg vil argumentere for at var en forutsetning for at Nidarosprovinsen ved utgangen av 1200-tallet hadde tatt store steg i retning av å bli en integrert del av universalkirken. 

Heidi Anett Øvergård Beistad (ph.d.), fagsjef og førstekonservator Stiklestad Nasjonale Kultursenter

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Kirsi Salonen (Turku University, Finland): Formation och reformation – Turku domkapitel under medeltiden

The cathedral chapter of the diocese of Turku was formed relatively late, only in the first half of the 13th century and it evolved into a proper chapter slowly in the course of the 14th and 15th century – until the Reformation changed its role and diminished the number of its members. The milestones of this development have been known to historians for a long time but new archaeological excavations and recently found written medieval sources invite to reevaluate the development of the chapter. This paper will take a new look at the history of the Turku cathedral chapter. Based on archaeological finds and written material from the Vatican Secret Archives, the paper argues that the cathedral was transferred to Turku a bit later than earlier has been thought and that the earlier interpretations of the role of Dominicans in the early formation of the Turku chapter might be exaggerated. Additionally, the paper presents new interpretations of those events which the Finnish ecclesiastical historians have called “the 1474 chapter reform” and the “chancellery reform” related to it.

Kirsi Salonen, University of Turku

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Magne Njåstad (Norges teknisk-naturvitenskabelige universitet, Norge): Domkapitlet i Nidaros gjennom reformasjonen

Reformasjonen i Danmark-Norge førte til gjennomgripende endringer også i den kirkelige bemanningen. Avskaffelsen av den episkopale kirken og innføringen av et kongelig superintendentembete reduserte domkirkenes betydning og ressursgrunnlag. Det var ikke gitt hvilke funksjoner domkapitlene ville ha, om noen i det hele tatt. I Trondheim klarte likevel domkapitlet å sikre omfattende administrative oppgaver og ikke minst økonomiske ressurser innenfor den etterreformatoriske kirkeordningen. I foredraget vil jeg undersøke noen sider av denne prosessen, med vekt på funksjoner ved domkriken i Trondheim, kannikjeldene som ressursgrunnlag for prestekollektivet og rekrutteringen til domkapitlet som gruppe. Hovedvekt vil ligge på domkapitlets strategi og handlinger i tiåret etter 1537, og følgene dette fikk for kapitlet og dets rolle og ressurser fram mot ca. 1600. 

Magne Njåstad, førsteamanuensis, Institutt for historiske studier, Norges teknisknaturvitenskapelige universitet

ABSTRACT. De nordiska samhällena av i dag kännetecknas av en låg korruptionsnivå. Folk litar på staten och den offentliga förvaltningen och det finns all orsak att göra det. Frågan hur länge denna tingens ordning har varit rådande och hur den uppstod inställer sig osökt. Utgående från svensk statsvetenskaplig och historisk forskning (Quality of Govenment-gruppen vid Göteborgs universitet) kring korruption och bekämpandet av detta fenomen var medlet av 1800-talet en brytpunkt med en reformatorisk "big bang" inom den offentliga förvaltningen som gjorde att korruptionsnivån sjönk snabbt och drastiskt i Sverige. Dansk och norsk forskning tycks bekräfta denna bild, men syftet med rundabordsserssionen är ändå att diskutera hur fortsatt forskning kan ges en optimal design och att - som sällan görs - ställa frågor kring administrativ korruption ur ett långt tidsperspektiv.Givet att nivån sjönk kring medlet av 1800-talet: hur hög var den den innan, hur kan tidigmoderna administrativ korruption studeras och vad skall förstås med korruption i ett förmodernt samhälle. Och kan man som ett alternativ till en "stor smäll" tänka sig en förändring i korruptionsnivån tack vare en rad reformer över ett längre tidsspann? I Finland är forskningen kring administrativ korruption som ett historiskt fenomen ännu i sin linda men knutet till en annorlunda politisk kultur än den nordiska är det ryska storfurstendömet Finland (1809-1917) ett intressant studieobjekt i en internordisk komparation.

ABSTRACT. During the more than 250 years that this session covers, the relationship between the Sami and the states in Norway, Sweden and Finland have undergone several major reforms. Most reforms have had an effect only on the Sami-state relationship in one state, some have had cross-border effects as well. The period, which starts with the border treaty of 1751 which produced the Lapp Codicill, have seen new borders being drawn, border closures for reindeer husbandry, forced relocations, and policies aimed at both assimilating and segregating the Sami. Some reforms have had a negative impact on the Sami and their rights, while others have been regarded as more positive in their effect. This session aim to discuss the development of the Sami-state relationship in the three Nordic states, shedding new light on these processes as well as focus on the Sami as actors of change in these developments. Have the reforms interpreted as positive really had that effect, or have they been a preservation of status quo in new form, what could be described as a re-formation of existing Sami-state relationships? And have some of the more negative reforms had positive impacts?

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Patrik Lantto (Umeå University): Deconstructing or Reconstructing Colonialism? A look at Swedish Sami policy during a period of reform and change, 1962-1981.
2. Jukka Nyyssönen (UiT – The Arctic University of Norway): Re-formation of the Sami (non-)policies in Finland – cases of Sami Delegation (1972-1995) and the Sami law (1990).
3. CANCELLED: Veli-Pekka Lehtola (University of Oulu): Reservation politics or Sámi rights? Discussions on Sámi protection areas in 1920s and 1930s in Finland.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Deconstructing or Reconstructing Colonialism? A look at Swedish Sami policy during a period of reform and change, 1962-1981

Patrik Lantto, Vaartoe – Centre for Sami Research, Umeå University

During the 1960s, the Swedish Sami policy entered a period of change; in 1962 the state administration of reindeer husbandry, the Lapp Administration, went through some reform, in 1971 a new Reindeer Grazing Act was enacted while the Lapp Administration was closed down, during the first half of the 1970s the situation of the Sami as a people was being investigated by a state commission, and in 1981 the Supreme Court ruled on a case concerning if the state or the Sami owned the reindeer grazing land. Discussions concerning the need for reforms had begun in earnest during the 1950s, where both the fundamental ideas and views of the policy area – the subordination of the Sami and the image of them as reindeer herders – as well as state legislation and administration, and Sami rights would be central themes. This paper will analyze the development during this period, with focus on both state authorities and Sami organizations as actors of change in the process. Changes in legislation and in the state administration, as well as how the view of Sami rights developed will be central areas analyzed. Did the changes during the period represent a genuine break with the colonial past of the Sami policy of Sweden, or were they in fact a re-formation of the existing situation?
Key words: Swedish Sami policy, legislation, state administration, Sami rights

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Re-formation of the Sami (non-)policies in Finland – cases of Sami Delegation (1972-1995) and the Sami law (1990)
Jukka Nyyssönen, researcher, UiT – Norges arktiske universitet, Tromsø Museum – Universitetsmuseet, Seksjon for kulturvitenskap / Institutt for arkeologi, historie, religionsvitenskap og teologi

Unlike in Scandinavian countries, the Finnish Sami policies are marked by less official initiative and discussions with the Sami organizations. It is argued that up until late 1970s, in spite of the groundbreaking initiative to establish a self-governing organ Sami Delegation in 1972, the policy bears resemblance more to a non-policy, sustaining the hegemonic silence, than active policy-making, where the Sami would act and be heard on equal basis. A slight transformation is detectible from the 1980s onwards; from there on the occasions, when the state acted in cooperation with the Sami actors increased in number. This can be partly credited to the dedicated work to promote the land rights issue, which the Sami organizations and the Sami Delegation had prioritized and to which the state in the end had to relate to. At the end of the 1990s an effort was made to legislate a special Sami Law, which was meant to solve the landownership issue. The effort, however, failed. Why was this? Which principles were at play and what this failure indicates of the Finnish Sami policies? Was there any real reform in the Sami policies, or was this rather a case of Re-Formation?

ABSTRACT. The notion of encyclopedism has a wide field of application. Besides referring to the making of alphabetically organized, multivolume dictionaries, researchers from diverse disciplines use it to describe a variety of historical practices. Ancient and medieval textual compendia are categorized as encyclopedias in retrospect, despite large differences in titles, form, and content. Archives, libraries and museums are seen as expressions of an encyclopedic spirit, just as epic poems and other works of fiction are described as encyclopedic in nature. If we consider these and other textual, material, and spatial products together, a common denominator seems to be the ambition to collect and organize the totality of information and objects perceived as particularly valuable and useful at a given point time, or within a specific area of knowledge. The content of the collections, their organization and presentation, however, vary greatly over time. What we refer to as encyclopedism, encyclopedias, or encyclopedic spirit have undergone many reformations. The same is true for the ways in which we speak about these phenomena.

The session brings together researchers of history of science and ideas, history of the book, and literature studies to discuss changes in practical, theoretical, literary, and material aspects of encyclopedism, from the early-modern period up to today. What transhistorical values, ideas, and practices are we trying to capture and connect when referring to them as encyclopedic? How does an encyclopedic spirit manifest in poetry, or encyclopedic order in the physical layout of a book page? How do encyclopedic practices, such as the categorization and classification of words and things, change over time? And when we speak about all these things as somehow encyclopedic, do we really talk about the same thing?

With these four papers and concluding collective discussion, our ambition is to deepen our understanding of encyclopedism as a changing historical practice as well as a theoretical instrument applied on a changeable past.

PRESENTATIONS

1. Linn Holmberg, PhD, History of Science and Ideas (Stockholm University): How to Talk about Encyclopedism: Reformations of Concept, Genre, and Practice.
2. Maria Simonsen, PhD, Dept. of Culture and Global Studies (Aalborg University): When Materiality Talks The changing Landscape of the Encyclopedic Page Layout. 
3. David Dunér, PhD, History of Science and Ideas (Lund University): The Categorization of Things: Universal Classification of Concepts in Early Encyclopaedic Thinking. 
4. Alfred Sjödin, PhD, Literature Studies (Lund University): A Poetic Encyclopedia? Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna’s The Harvest

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

How to Talk about Encyclopedism: Reformations of Concept, Genre, and Practice
Linn Holmberg, PhD, Stockholm University

What does it mean to talk about encyclopedias and encyclopedism – or encyclopedic practice, spirit, vision, or knowledge – in ancient, medieval, early-modern, and modern times? Reading about encyclopedism often involves penetrating a discursive landscape of unclear definitions and multiple meanings. In order to advance our understanding of encyclopedism as a transhistorical and global phenomenon, how are we to handle this muddle of conceptual uses? In this paper I will discuss the benefits of theoretically distinguishing between encyclopedism as concept, genre, and practice, of which all three have their own histories of reformations. For the cause of clarity, I will treat the three meanings separately but also highlight the chronology of their historical relationship. As concept, the term encyclopedia (deriving from the Greek enkyklios paidea, ‘general education’ or ‘circle of knowledge’) has had many meanings over the centuries. Early-modern definitions had initially rather negative connotations, associating to the Fall of Man and destructive curiosity. In the eighteenth century, the term was redefined in positive terms when compilers started to refer to their alphabetically organized dictionaries as ‘encyclopedias’. As genre, the encyclopedia-dictionary underwent several reformations in form, function, and aspiration during the next 250 years, not the least in its transition from print to digital. As practice, finally, the activity of trying to gather, organize, and present everything worth knowing is a phenomenon dating back to the advent of writing. It comes to expression in creation myths and ancient epics as well as scholastic thematic compendia of knowledge.
Retrospective categorizations of these texts (or the aspirations permeating them) as ‘encyclopedic’ is a product of the success of the Enlightenment (re)definition of an ancient term. By analysing these historical reformations and entanglements of concept, genre and practice, the paper encourages critical discussion about current academic conversations about encyclopedism.

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When Materiality Talks - The changing Landscape of the Encyclopedic Page Layout
Maria Simonsen, PhD, Aalborg University

How has the page layout of the encyclopedia changed in the transition from print to digital? This presentation provides an insight into how the page layout in Scandinavian encyclopedias has evolved over a period of nearly 150 years; from printed books to their emergence in digitized medias; first as digital facsimiles and later as independent articles in Wikipedia. The page, this rectangular-shaped space, has been an integral part of human life for so long that it is hardly noticed anymore. Despite its obscurity it is in many ways a force field without equal. In various formats and materials; from papyrus scrolls and clay tablets to chemical pulp made of cellulose and lignin – and now in this incomprehensible digital space disguised in plastic and glass – the page has had a decisive influence on culture and information for thousands of years. Since encyclopedias have often been considered to contain the ‘best’ knowledge available, the encyclopedic page becomes a special case of authoritative text. Illustrated with examples from Scandinavian encyclopedias, this paper will discuss the reformations that the encyclopedic page has undergone in the last century. What does the encyclopedic page look like? What changes has its architecture undergone over time? How does the encyclopedic page create its authority through its materiality, and how has this
changed in the digital age?

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The Categorization of Things: Universal Classification of Concepts in EarlyEncyclopaedic Thinking
David Dunér, PhD, Lund University

The categorisation and classification of objects and concepts gained particular importance in the encyclopaedic tradition in the seventeenth and eighteenth century, a time of lists, lexicons, a striving for universality and totality. Beginning in the seventeenth century, highlighted in the eighteenth century, cosmopolitan endeavours tried to overlap the linguistic chasm between people. Since the Reformation the Word became of a special significance. The teachings of God should be spread to the common people in their own language, and should be understood by all. Since the invention of the printing press there was a gradual transition from orality to literacy. Globalisation, travels and commerce, the discovery of unknown cultures and tongues, forced traders and travellers to find new ways of communicating. The endeavour was to find a universal language that classified all concepts in a systematic and logical way. Johann Heinrich Alsted, Athanasius Kircher, Gaspar Schott and others categorised and
searched for a systematic classification of the world and human knowledge. By placing objects in their correct categories, a syllogistic logic could be applied in order to create new knowledge. The search for a universal language was rooted in the belief that it was possible to make a classification of objects that was valid for all of humanity, irrespective of culture and origin. However, the categorisation of the world and concepts is often bound by culture and is not really about the “true” classification of actual objects. But this was not at all how they saw it. The division into classes and concepts was not anything arbitrary. In fact, the concepts and characters of the universal language were to correspond to the objects in reality. It was therefore assumed to be a similarity between the structure of the Universe and human thinking, an analogy between the order of the world and the grammatical order between the symbols in language. The concepts were a reflection of the Universe, and the ordered
classification reflected the cosmic harmony. The designations and relationships of the universal language corresponded with, was isomorphous with, the inherent characteristics and relationships of the objects. This paper examines the concept categorization in early modern universal languages, particularly in respect to the classification of things of the Swedish polymath Christopher Polhem.

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A Poetic Encyclopedia? Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna’s The Harvest
Alfred Sjödin, PhD, Lund University

Johan Gabriel Oxenstierna’s The Harvest (1796) constitutes the Gustavian era’s most successful example of a convergence between poetry and what has often been referred to as the ”encyclopedic spirit”. In his voluminous poem, Oxenstierna offers the reader an overview of the Swedish countryside: its typical activities, its plants and Swedish history as reflected in the landscape. At the same time, he is careful to keep the reader interested by means of unexpected transitions, episodes and shifts in the manner of presentation. While many of the traditional guidelines of poetic writing are modified in order to accommodate a greater than usual amount of information, this information is also carefully selected in order to not disturb the poetic qualities of the poem. I will discuss the composition of the poem and its relation to scientific and historical discourses of the period, and reflect upon its purpose (true didacticism or vague ”inspiration”?) and its function (synthesis? propaedeutic?). By probing the limits of poetry as well as the limits of the reader’s thirst for knowledge in this period, the meaning of the term ”encyclopedism” as applied to poetry can perhaps be fruitfully discussed.

ABSTRACT. As in all societies, the ideals about good life, decent conduct and favourable personality traits shaped people’s thoughts and behaviour in early modern Sweden. As the critics of Elias’ civilization theory have pointed out, a mass of social restrictions and regulations existed and a great degree of self-control was certainly expected of the pre- and early modern individuals. Ideal way of living and positive traits – as well as their opposites – were promulgated in various ways by the authorities, for example in legislation, ordinances and devotional literature, and present and reconstructed in everyday life. The session focuses on the contents, construction and borderlines of behavioural and character ideals and paragons, presenting new insights about the ideas of decent and indecent conduct in early modern Sweden and Finland. The borderline between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour was blurred and context-depended, for example when it came to suitable drunken behaviour or expected religious practice. The papers discuss not only the ideals and their opposites but also the complex negotiation and situational understandings of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ behaviour and characteristics. On many occasions, the social norms and ideals were ambivalent, and the official norms were difficult to follow, or even in contrast to those of the lay communities.

PRESENTATIONS

1. Riikka Miettinen (University of Tampere, Finland): (Re)constructing Good Christians and ’Monsters’ in Seventeenth-Century Swedish Suicide Trials
2. Jenni Lares (University of Tampere, Finland): How to Behave When You Are Drunk – The Images of Drunkenness in Seventeenth Century Finnish Court Records

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Riikka Miettinen (University of Tampere, Finland): (Re)constructing Good Christians and ’Monsters’ in Seventeenth-Century Swedish Suicide Trials

Although suicide itself was considered a horrendous sin and a punishable felony in early modern Europe, not all suicides were thought as reprehensible, heinous or morally condemnable as others. The social reactions depended on the context and the personal features of the person who had committed the act. As exceptional events, trials related to suicides and suspected suicides offer a fruitful perspective into the (re)construction of behavioural and character ideals and their opposites in early modern Sweden and Finland. Imagery of ideal, devout and ‘good Christians’ and of evil personas and bad ways of life were heavily deployed and reconstructed in building up cases against and pleading for the deceased accused. The paper discusses the stereotypes and archetypes of the behaviour and personal traits that were considered ideal and admired and unwanted in the rural and urban communities of seventeenth-century Sweden and Finland, primarily based on lower court records and other judicial documents describing the argumentation and deduction of the courts in suicide trials. Although many ideas on ‘good’ and ‘bad’ conduct and character were strongly shared and agreed upon, the personal features of the individual, like gender, age and wealth, influenced the ways in which his or her acts and behaviour were categorized and valued.

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Jenni Lares (University of Tampere, Finland): How to Behave When You Are Drunk – The Images of Drunkenness in Seventeenth Century 

Finnish Court Records This paper discusses and reconstructs the boundaries of acceptable and unacceptable drunken behaviour based on lower court records of seventeenth century Finland. In certain occasions drunkenness was suitable and encouraged, but descriptions of drunken behaviour usually end up in court records when the line for good behaviour has been crossed. This unwanted drunken behaviour tells us about the ideals related to alcohol consumption and drunkenness and about the kinds of drinking that were seen as acceptable in contrast to unacceptable or illicit. The reconstruction of the boundaries for acceptable and unacceptable drunken behaviour helps to understand the social meaning of alcoholic drinks and drunkenness in early modern Finland. The mere consumption of alcohol was not considered as drunken behaviour in seventeenth-century Finland as alcoholic beverages were an essential part of the early modern diet. Before modern technology it was not possible to measure the exact level of intoxication. Drunkenness was determined by person’s behaviour, or in some occasions, by the level of consumption. When a person became so inebriated that it started to affect his or her behaviour, there were different categories for acceptable and unwanted drunken behaviour. These categories were drastically shaped by the person’s gender, age, wealth and social status. Also, the time and place of the intoxication defined the lines for good behaviour.

ABSTRACT. Early modern credit markets were part of social networks. Lending and borrowing were means to create, maintain, and strengthen relationships that were crucial for long-term benefits. Many of life’s important actions depended on useful relationships. During hard times, strong relationships were invaluable since formal, institutional economic supports were minimal. Lending and borrowing were thus part of one act in a bigger picture, and could not be seen as only an economic move. Rural and urban societies faced the slow transition from informal to formal credit markets during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This also changed the role of trust, networks, and reputations. New actors were brought into the picture. Old traditions and actors without adaptable behavior were slowly pushed aside. In urban centers, migration, population growth, and the establishment of financial institutions meant that the old system — with economic relations closely connected to social functions — was reformed faster than in the countryside. From the late eighteen and the early nineteenth century, economic development also required more capital and financial exchange for further investments. As credit was an essential financial tool both for capitalists to sustain their investments, as well as for workers to make ends meet, this probably resulted in growing indebtedness. In this session, the concept of emerging credit markets is analyzed from various perspectives, especially from the point of view of crises. Of special interest is change and transition over time, and when this could be observed in different geographical regions and among different actors. The Nordic countries, as industrial latecomers, were probably reformed later when compared to the continental forerunners. The amount of historical data from the regions makes deep analysis possible. Results from the Nordic countries will be related to the development in other European countries.

Chair: Kristina Lilja (Uppsala) Commentator: Anders Perlinge (Stockholm)

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Jaser Abbas (Uppsala University): Credit in times of economic stress: Credit consumption as a way to handle economic crises, Malmö 1850-1900
2. Merja Uotila (University of Jyväskylä, Finland): Broken trust: Debt litigations in early nineteenth century rural Finland
3. Riina Turunen (University of Jyväskylä, Finland): Changing urban credit markets and bankruptcy in nineteenth-century Finland

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Jaser Abbas (Uppsala University): Credit in times of economic stress: Credit consumption as a way to handle economic crises, Malmö 1850-1900 

Over a life-time, the balance between income and expenditures changes several times. This is caused by biological and psychological factors inherent in the family life cycle (Schwartz 1988, Subacchi 1993; Jütte 1994; Di Matteo 1998, Lilja & Bäcklund 2013). Additionally, economic crises occur and affect families and capitalists as external shocks. As a consequence, the latter sometimes go bankrupt, however we know almost nothing about the short- and long-term economic and social consequences for ordinary income earners and businessmen. How were their possibilities to get credit affected by economic crises? In this study, petition protocols and probate records from the town of Malmö are used. During the second half of the nineteenth century, Malmö transformed from a small agrarian town, to a large and important industrialized transit town. This, of course, led to more credit in circulation. It also meant that Malmö’s inhabitants became more exposed to changing trade conditions. In the study, we focus on when and why workers and traders took credit, and if this behavior changed as a result of economic stress. What impact had modern financial institutions on the possibilities for different social groups to handle economic stress? The primary sources give a “before and after picture” of credit consumption. It is also possible to discuss why credit was taken and the intentions behind credit consumption, and if traditional credit networks disappeared as a consequence of a modernized capital market. 

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PhD Tiina Hemminki and PhD Merja Uotila (University of Jyväskylä, Finland): Broken trust: Debt litigations in early nineteenth century rural Finland 

Rural credit markets in early-nineteenth century Finland were informal. People were accustomed to lending to one another, often without any written proof. Official banking institutions did not yet exist. Credit relationships were based on trust and lending was one part of social networks. Thanks to probate inventories, we know a lot about the magnitude of lending and borrowing in Finland. They cannot, however, usually cast light on the practices when the repayment was late or the partners’ views on repayment differed. Debtors did not always pay their debt in time and creditors had to choose between extension and sanctions. Court records show unpaid debts were dealt with in court so both informal and formal sanctions were practiced. The paper concentrates on rural artisans, firstly because they constituted a relatively separate group in a rural community who had credit relationships with every part of the society, secondly because the original reason of their loans are usually easy to define and, thirdly, because their credit relationships have not been analyzed deeply in earlier Finnish history. By analyzing rural artisans’ debt litigations in Southern Finland this paper describes what happened when trust got broken, how it was negotiated and maybe solved. Problems with trust also connect to how credit markets were developing slowly to separate, formal institutions in Finland. What kind of reasons spurred rural people to develop lending and borrowing? What kind of problems in traditional, informal credit markets were solved at least partly by emerging formal credit practices? What was behind the change — lack of trust or changing trust? 

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MA Riina Turunen (University of Jyväskylä, Finland): Changing urban credit markets and bankruptcy in nineteenth-century Finland 

Based typically on probate inventories, many of the previous studies on nineteenth-century credit markets have focused on rural lending and borrowing (e.g. Perlinge 2005). Alternatively, my paper looks into the development of urban credit markets and credit relationships through burghers’ bankruptcy records in a few Finnish coastal towns with privileges to foreign trade. What kind of loans did these urban burghers have? Was their indebtedness based on loans from formal or informal lenders and on written or oral agreements? How did this change during the century? When did bank loans emerge in the balance sheets of the bankrupts? This is how we gain more information on the progress of the financial revolution in urban areas where it first emerged. As information on the types of debts was typically included in the bankruptcy records, they offer us insight into credit markets. Also, as the bankrupt burghers belonged economically to the most active part the town population, they were the first to adopt novel credit devices, credit institutions, and the ways of using them. I will show that urban credit relations were decidedly formal, yet still personal, already in the first half of the century. The types of written agreements, however, changed dramatically. Bills of exchange started to replace traditional promissory notes and book debts. The wider spreading of the bills of exchange could not take place without newly founded private commercial banks in the 1860s, as these banks were particularly important in discounting the bills of exchange. Finally, as the bills of exchange made it easier for more people to gain credit, this created more insolvency in the urban society.

ABSTRACT. Theories of just and necessary wars were collected and systematised in the 12th century in a set of criteria, that are still the ones considered in present day discussions on warfare. The formulation of these theories was closely linked to at least two major medieval reformations, in scientific methods (scholasticism), and in emotional theology. Scholastic method was hierarchical and binary – either an element is, or it is not – and sought in principle to define exactly under which circumstances an act was permissible, prohibited, or should be promoted. In theories of warfare, scholastic argumentation generally sought to restrict warfare as much as possible and to define the rights of persons involved, fighting soldiers as well as civilians. At the same time, 11th and 12th century theology returned to passages and readings of the Bible that supported ecclesiastical involvement in secular affairs and were much less reluctant towards use of physical force, if it were emotion-driven – if it was led by zeal for God or for justice. A ‘Theology of utter destruction’ of the enemies of God became widespread in ecclesiastical reform circles, and developed parallel to the scholastic arguments. In certain specific situations, emotion could overrule formal logic. The uneasy relationship between these two approaches to war was noticed by contemporaries and discussed explicitly or implicitly in for example several of the great medieval narratives about war in the Baltic areas. The round table will discuss these reformations in theology and thinking, from the 11th century and throughout the Middle Ages, and their implications for theories of warfare.

ABSTRACT. This panel takes as its point of departure the efforts by the Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen to enlist history in his Liberal–Conservative government's "culture war" against opponents to the left who would not stand up against aggression—be it from Nazis during World War II, Communists during the Cold War, or Islamists during the War on Terror. Danish governments of different color commissioned historians to produce reports on cold war issues, culminating in the fiercely anti-Communist Bent Jensen's Centre for Cold War Research. Whereas the Danish Cold War history debâcle is about to become a thing of the past, the issue of politically engaged historians does not go away. Ever since antipositivism drove objectivism–cum–neutrality underground, the mainstream view has been that scholarship is influenced by the scholar's political and other values. This notion deprived left-leaning Danish historians of shelter when the Right dismissed their historiography for political reasons. Rosanna Farbøl depicts the battlefield of Danish Cold War historiography and politics, whereas Tor Egil Førland suggests that historians need neither return to antiquated objectivism nor accept that their accounts are determined by their ideology. Cognitive values offer a way out of the conundrum, providing scholars with criteria for theory choice which are independent from political values. Martin Wiklund submits the concept of justice as a key to the engagement dilemma. Like Førland he refuses to accept that objectivism and ideological moralism are the only options available. Instead Wiklund points to the notion of justice for avoiding ideological instrumentalism and for letting the practical dimension be enlightened by historical experience. This is preferable to letting the cognitive dimension be determined by practical purposes or avoiding the practical dimension as such.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Rosanna Farbøl (Aarhus University, Denmark): The Cold War of Danish Historians
2. Tor Egil Førland (University of Oslo, Norway): Historiography as politics by other means?
3. Martin Wiklund (University of Gothenburg, Sweden): The historian as engaged intellectual and the ideal of justice

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Rosanna Farbøl: The Cold War of Danish Historians

In Denmark, Cold War history has got political priority, and Cold War historians have become involved in party political rivalries. In order to get "the historical truth", Danish politicians have commissioned official reports for more than 14 million euros examining controversial issues of Danish Cold War politics. The aim has been to promote certain narratives about the Cold War and to influence the evaluation of political and moral choices of the past, as well as their repercussions into the present. The reports have examined some of the most sensitive issues of the Danish Cold War experience; nuclear policies in Greenland, the Secret Services' surveillance of political extremes, and the threat from the Warsaw Pact, Danish communists and left wing fellow travelers. A great deal of Danish Cold War historians has been involved in this trend, dubbed "truth on demand", and they have left the sanctuary of their ivory towers to become public figures and, to varying degrees, partake in heated public discussions about the past. This paper assesses this development and argues that the reports have not succeeded in settling political scores, but they have advanced Danish Cold War research, and arguably, contributed to the processes of getting to terms with the past. At the same time, however, they have definitely made the interface between scholarship and politics increasingly porous.

About the author:
Rosanna Farbøl, PhD, part-time lecturer at Aarhus University, School of Culture and Society. Her dissertation "Koldkrigere, medløbere og røde lejesvende. Den Kolde Krig i dansk historiekultur 1989-2015", is currently prepared for publication. Her latest publications include "Commemoration of a cold war. The politics of history and heritage at Cold War memory sites in Denmark", Cold War History 15 (2015), no. 4, pp. 471-490.

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Tor Egil Førland: Historiography as politics by other means?

The anti-positivist deluge of the 1960s and 1970s swept away the ideal of objective, meaning neutral, historiography. Left was the acknowledgement of the historian as an engaged scholar, guided or at least influenced by his or her worldview and values, and playing a political role whether intentionally or not. The charged political climate in Danish cold war historiography in the 21st century shows the perils of engaged historiography, as the Liberal-Conservative government and their supporters commissioned their own, révanche-traditionalist version of cold war history and dismissed the majority views of mainstream, left-leaning historians. The latter, regarding their own interpretations as superior and unwilling to consider them as ideological products, sought refuge in the ruins of objectivism-only to meet with the same kind of arguments that the Left had used against purported positivists in the 1960s and 1970s. This paper attempts to lay out a new foundation for theory choice in historiography--or rather to point to the foundation on which historians perhaps unwittingly have been standing--by means of cognitive values as described by philosophers from Kuhn to Kuukkanen. Using such epistemic values as the criteria for assessing competing interpretations allows for scholars to be politically engaged or ideologically driven in their research, while still holding the potential for distinguishing between good and not so good theories. Accomplishing such differentiation means that historiography can transcend the notion that theory choice, if not objective and disengaged, must be determined by ideology or political values.

About the author:
Tor Egil Førland is professor of history and head of the Department of Archaelogy, Conservation and History at the University of Oslo. Trained as a cold war historian he has also published books and articles on the student/youth revolt of the 1960s as well as several articles, in History and Theory, Historisk Tidsskrift (Oslo and Copenhagen) and elsewhere, on theory and methodology. His forthcoming book Values, Objectivity, and Explanation in Historiography is due for publication by Routledge in spring 2017.

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Martin Wiklund: The historian as engaged intellectual and the ideal of justice

During the 20th century, the engaged intellectual has typically had the role of a prosecutor, criticizing wrongs and injustices, paradigmatically expressed by Zola’s »J’accuse». But ”engagement” can take on many forms and ought to be critically differentiated in order to avoid perverted forms of engagement. The paper uses the analogy of a court of justice to articulate the responsibility and pitfalls of the historian as engaged intellectual and defends the importance of ‘justice’ as a regulative idea for interpretations and judgments. The model also makes it easier to identify the limitations of disengaged objectivism and engaged ideological moralism. After the postmodern critique of intellectuals’ strong claims of truth, universality and ideological validity there is a need for a new ethics of intellectual engagement and the use of history that goes beyond scientific objectivity as well as ideological commitment. The paper claims that the ‘justice’ of memory is an important dimension of such an ethics. Several dimensions of the concept of justice are shown to be relevant for historians. Special attention is dedicated to the importance of ’justice’ for avoiding ideological instrumentalism and for letting the practical dimension to be enlightened by historical experience, rather than letting the cognitive dimension be determined by the practical or avoiding the practical dimension as such. For the historians to further political matters, it is crucial to focus on and to develop the intellectual quality of engagement, rather than the strength of convictions or mere historical knowledge.

About the author:
Martin Wiklund, (1970), Associate Professor in History of ideas at University of Gothenburg, Ph.D in History at Lund University 2006 (I det modernas landskap. Historisk orientering och kritiska berättelser om det moderna Sverige mellan 1960 och 1990). He has also published a second monograph (Historia som domstol. Historisk värdering och retorisk argumentation kring ”68”, 2012) and a number of articles on historical consciousness and theory of history, and edited a Swedish anthology with texts by Jörn Rüsen. Main research interests: theory of history, functions and uses of history, history of historical thinking.

ABSTRACT. This session will discuss the meanings and impact of gender in humanitarian biographies and narratives. The First World War has been called a great “humanitarian awakening” and might be considered a period of reformation in humanitarian imagination. Although the history of humanitarianism is a growing field of research, little attention has been given to gender in this globalizing enterprise.

The first aim of the session will thus be to analyze the gendered experiences of humanitarian actors, gendered expectations and images of the victims as well as the role of gender in the construction and intermediation of humanitarian stories to the humanitarian audiences at home, reshaping cultures of relief.

By focusing on humanitarian narratives we want to discuss how Nordic humanitarian actors translated their complicated and complex experiences of handling and witnessing war into forms that can be assimilated by the audience, shaping their knowledge and affecting their ability to take action. It also takes into account the dilemmas of telling someone else’s story.

The Nordic nations have a long history of championing themselves as humanitarian great powers with a strong focus on gender-equality. Still, their humanitarian histories differ. Thus, the second aim of this session is to shed light on similarities and differences between Nordic humanitarian histories. It will also discuss the features and consistency of the Nordic humanitarian narrative(s) in relation to earlier research on the Anglo-American context.

This leads to the following guiding questions: - How did gender relations and ideologies of gender affect Nordic humanitarian actors’ biographies? - What role did gender relations play in the strategies of the recipient communities? - How did the gender of the people suffering, the reporters of the pain, and those who would respond influence the content and shape of humanitarian messages and mobilizing campaigns in the Nordic countries?

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Seija Jalagin (University of Oulu, Finland): “These were simple and un-learned people”. Humanitarian Action, Gender and Refugees in Post-World War I Finland
2. Inger Marie Okkenhaug (Volda University College, Norway): Gender and humanitarian practices in The Interwar Period: Scandinavian Relief and Armenian Refugees in Lebanon and Syria, 1920-1940
3. Lina Sturfelt (Lund University, Sweden): Hunger Games. Gendered Bodies in the Humanitarian Narratives of Swedish Save the Children after the First World War
4. Maria Småberg (Lund University, Sweden): Cosmopolitan Mothering – humanitarian narratives of saving Armenian mothers and orphans 1902-1947

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Seija Jalagin (University of Oulu, Finland): “These were simple and un-learned people”. Humanitarian Action, Gender and Refugees in Post-World War I Finland

Between 1917 and 1922 some 35.000 refugees came to Finland from Russia, the figure including also third country people in addition Russian nationals. While the majority of the refugees continued to continental Europe some 11.000 East Karelians stayed in Finland waiting to return home or to find new life elsewhere. Having declared itself independent from Russia in 1917 and struggling with consequences of the 1918 Civil War, Finland began formulating its refugee policies to respond to international agreements. There is, however, very little research on the international influence, both Nordic and supranational such as the League of Nations, on Finland’s refugee policy. This paper will explore the humanitarian efforts to aid the refugees in Finland within the framework of national resources and international orientations. Of particular interest is the relationship between state-led refugee organisation and the many third-sector operators who responded to immediate need of relief. The focus is on gendered interpretations of refugees as well as on the gendered activities of the aid itself. The refugee aid stretched from short-term food and clothing distribution to institutionalised management in refugee centres of Turkinsaari, Kyminlinna and Oulu. The source material consists of the archived records of the State Refugee Aid Center (Valtion Pakolaisavustuskeskus), selected media coverage of and the fragmentary narratives of the aid workers and refugees themselves.

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Inger Marie Okkenhaug (Volda University College, Norway): Gender and humanitarian practices in The Interwar Period: Scandinavian Relief and Armenian Refugees in Lebanon and Syria, 1920-1940

During and immediately after World War I, more than 100, 000 Armenian refugees arrived in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Men had been the main victims during the genocide and the large majority of refugees were women and children. They were the recipients of international aid, mainly supplied by American and Scandinavian individuals and organizations. This paper will examine the interaction between Scandinavian female health care professionals and Armenian women refugees in Lebanon and Syria in the years between 1925 and 1935. Based on sources from the Danish and Norwegian Women´s Mission Organization the paper will explore the accounts of Scandinavian (Lutheran) humanitarian ideas, practices and gender norms in encounters with refugee communities in Beirut and Aleppo. The Scandinavian women had worked with Armenians in the Ottoman Empire since the early 1900s. They had also lived through the genocide with Armenians in Anatolia. How did these experiences influence post war relief work and Scandinavian interaction with Armenian women survivors? How are the professional and private relations between Scandinavian and Armenian relief workers and their various religious belongings expressed in the narratives of the Scandinavian missionaries?

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Lina Sturfelt (Lund University, Sweden): Hunger Games. Gendered Bodies in the Humanitarian Narratives of Swedish Save the Children after the First World War

Swedish Save the Children (SSC) was founded in 1919 in direct response to the war sufferings of children and it soon became an important post-war humanitarian actor at work in Central and Eastern Europe. Up till the mid-twenties tens of thousands of starving and sick children and their families were fed, clothed and cured by the SSC and its donors. During the same period, SSC also helped Swedish children and especially mothers without means. In the contemporary press campaigns and other fundraising activities directed at the Swedish audience, the humanitarian narrative of SSC frequently focused on the body as a common locus of sympathy and a way of rising compassion and action. As the body is a central site of gendered expectations and images, this paper will explore the role of the (un)gendered body in these press records and other contemporary texts, as well as in a few retrospective SSC chronicles of the world war era, such as Elsa BjörkmanGoldschmidt’s Vienna-memoirs and the biographies of Anna Lenah Elgström and Marika Stiernstedt, all active within SSC during the interwar years. It will examine the gendering of the humanitarian narrative from the three different but intersected perspectives: the victim’s body, the body of the humanitarian, and the defeated national bodies of Central and Eastern Europe in relation to the altruistic Nordic nations. Finally, the subject of regarding these humanitarian narratives as a kind of (anti)war histories – and as a feminist way of rewriting what war means and is in the long shadow of the world wars – is discussed.

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Maria Småberg (Lund University, Sweden): Cosmopolitan Mothering – humanitarian narratives of saving Armenian mothers and orphans 1902-1947

This paper discusses and analyzes the theme of mothering in humanitarian narratives. I am here particularly interested in mothering that crosses boundaries of care in spite of differences of nationality, culture and religion – cosmopolitan mothering. Swedish missionary Alma Johansson (1881-1974) was one of a remarkable amount of Scandinavian women missionaries who volunteered as relief workers during the Armenian refugee crisis after the 1894-96 massacres and the 1915 genocide in Ottoman Turkey. Johansson was sent out by the organization Kvinnliga Missionsarbetare (Women Missionary Workers), K.M.A. in 1902 to work with Armenian women and orphans. The women missionaries were often seen as mothers who were “saving a whole generation”. The paper examines how Johansson in her humanitarian writings presented herself as an external mother. It also explores how her narratives created transnational bonds of solidarity between Swedish and Armenian mothers and how these relationships became a foundation for Armenian children and women to help themselves. However, in this mothering were also ambivalences. Maternalism emerged in the late 19th Century when promoting progressive reforms within the nation-states and it was also a focus for feminist international peace activists. At the same time maternalism has been criticized for keeping women out of male dominated professions. It can also reinforce essentialist or conservative assumptions about mothering as well as western superiority. In this paper I make a distinction between biological motherhood and mothering as a social practice which give rise to a relational, contextual approach to humanitarianism. The empirical parts draw on extracts from Alma Johansson’s reports, letters, books, and articles published in Swedish missionary publications.

ABSTRACT. Visiting a History Congress in a Nordic context – the International Congress in Oslo in 1928 – Henri Pirenne travelled on to Stockholm where he told his travelling companion Marc Bloch that he wanted to see the newest buildings. Why? He was a historian, not an antiquarian – hence his love of life and passion for the present! In our contemporary climate of not only conflict but also confusion, and of profound societal and planetary challenges Pirenne’s statement seems truer than ever before. The world needs change, but the change we seem to get is far from the change we wish to see. There is a hunger and thirst for understanding of how we could get into this precarious, bewildering but in some respects also hopeful situation, and how we could navigate forward from it.

In this keynote lecture I will talk about what I see as an increasing relevance and importance of historical knowledge in our time. This growing demand on history is linked to broad discussions of the future directions of the humanities, and also the social sciences, at large. New interdisciplinary constellations, sometimes called the integrative humanities, are rising as a response to contemporary affairs but also in sincere efforts to learn from each other and improve scholarly. A core part of this development is the expanding environmental humanities, where environmental history is making a strong contribution. Also, when we look at the frontiers of research policy we see increasing recognition that history and other human sciences must be a central part of the knowledge called for – to manage transformations and assist in necessary reform. What does this call on historical knowledge entail for the future of the historical profession? What does it mean, for us as historians in our time, to act responsibly?

ABSTRACT. Historielärare kommenterar ibland enskilda uppgifter i studentexamens historiaprov genom att säga att de är ’gossefrågor’ eller ’tjejfrågor’, det vill säga de besvaras mer av manliga än kvinnliga deltagare i provet eller tvärtom. Tidigare studier tyder på att det finns skillnader i vilka områden som intresserar pojkar och flickor i historiaämnet. Det är således möjligt att de ovannämnda historielärare har rätt. I mitt papper vill jag undersöka om statistiken från studentexamen kan bekräfta att manliga och kvinnliga studeranden har olika preferenser i vilka uppgifter de besvarar i prov. Det statistiska materialet från studentexamen ger bra möjligheter för kvantitativa analyser som dock inte ännu har uttnyttjats i undersökningar om studerandens kunskaper, färdigheter och attityder i historiaämnet. I det hänseende kan pappret uppfattas också som ett bidrag i metoddiskussion.

Materialet i analysen är från historiaproven 2007¬–2014. I materialet kan vi kalkylera för varje uppgift hur många procent av manliga respektive kvinnliga deltagare i prov har besvarat uppgiften. Det finns ingen entydig gräns för hur stor skillnaden mellan dessa två procenttal ska vara för att uppfattas som signifikant. Jag fokuserar på den tredjedelen av uppgifterna där skillnaden är störst och redogör för mönster som kan upptäckas i studerandens preferenser och hur de kunde förklaras. Undersökningens tema anknyter till frågorna om hurdant förhållande ungdomarna har till historia som ett ämne och om historieundervisningen förstärker konventionella mönster i manliga och kvinnliga studerandens delvis olika intressen i samhällsfrågor och medborgerliga färdigheter.

ABSTRACT. Riktlinjer för historieundervisning nationellt och internationellt framhåller vikten av historia i skolan för att lära elever om det förflutna, träna kritiskt tänkande och förmedla en god värdegrund. Vikten av att fostra fred, kritiskt tänkande och stödja mänskliga rättigheter har understrukits allt mer sedan andra världskriget. I dag betonas historieundervisningen som central för att lära elever kritiskt tänkande och demokratiska förhållningssätt i en värld fylld av konflikter och brott mot mänskliga rättigheter. I detta paper presenteras resultat från tre fallstudier av undervisning i historia designad för att stimulera historiskt tänkande och värna mänskliga rättigheter. Historiedidaktiska och historiefilosofiska teorier problematiseras i förhållande till klassrummens komplexa verklighet i Sverige, USA och Nya Zeeland. Presentationen visar hur historiskt tänkande och medborgarfostran kan samspela i undervisningen och hur teoretiskt sett konkurrerande ideal kan hanteras av elever när de lär och skriver historia. Analyser av pågående undervisning – undervisningsmaterial, prov, elevtexter, observationer, lärar- och elevintervjuer i olika kulturella och nationella kontexter – visar hur historielärare och elever gör det förflutna samtidsrelevant. Detta paper visar att moraliska perspektiv i praktiken inte står i opposition till intellektuell skärpa och kritiskt tänkande. Dessutom visar presentationen att kritiska perspektiv på populärkulturella narrativ finns kvar hos elever även ett år efter avslutad undervisning. Resultaten från fallstudierna tyder på att historieundervisningen på olika sätt i olika kontexter kan bidra till kritiskt tänkande och engagemang för mänskliga rättigheter.

ABSTRACT. För sessionen "Historie i samspillets optik"

De nya finländska läroplanerna, som trätt kraft 1.8 2016, betonat starkt ämnesövergripande undervisning. Mitt paper kommer att fokusera på den roll historieämnet får i olika projekt och kurser som uppstår i enlighet med de nya läroplanerna. Jag kommer också att beskriva hur lärarutbildningen för ämneslärare i historia har arbetat med det ämnesövergripande perspektivet. Jag är bland annat kopplad till forsknings- och utvecklingsprojektet HELIUM (ämneshelheter i gymnasium), som är ett projekt som undersöker och utvecklar ämnesövergripande kurser i gymnasiet. Som forskare har jag fungerat som handledare för den ämnesövergripande läroplansprocessen i flera gymnasier. Under läsåret 2016-2017 kommer flera av dessa så kallade temastudiekurser att genomföras, och jag kommer att observera det arbetet, samt genom intervjuer med ämneslärare i historia med fokus på hur de ser på historieämnets roll i projektet. Liknande intervjuer genomförs även med ämneslärarstuderande i historia. Vid lärarutbildningen vid Åbo Akademi har vi redan under de senaste tre läsåren förberett lärarstuderande för ämnesövergripande undervisning genom att arrangera olika former av fenomenbaserade projekt. Det finns preliminära resultat från erfarenheterna från de här projekten, och de kommer även att rapporteras i mitt paper. Ur ett historiedidaktiskt och historievetenskapligt perspektiv är det i dubbel bemärkelse fruktbart att koppla in begreppet historiebruk till den analys som görs av de ämnesövergripande projekten: på vilket sätt brukas historia i samverkande undervisning, och vilken form av historia är det som brukas.

ABSTRACT. Den andra Reformationen Om Herrnhutismen och den parallella reformationen Den skandinaviska Herrnhutismen som är en utlöpare av den globala kyrkan ”Neue Brudergemeine” hade stora framgångar under 1700-talet. Sedan Kyrkan från början av 1800-talet förlorade mark i Europa har den dock haft stora framgångar i andra världsdelar och har idag närmare en miljon medlemmar världen över. När Brödrakyrkan, ”Herrnhutismen”, grundades år 1727 i Herrnhut, Sachsen, fastslogs att den var en arvtagare till en historisk kyrka erkända av reformatorer som Luther och Calvin. Dessa anspråk skapade konflikter som mycket kom att handla om namnet. I kärnområdet (de tyska staterna och Nederländerna) kallas den för ”Neue Brudergemeine”. I länder som England och USA för ”Moravian Church” medan den kallades ”Herrnhutism” i Skandinavien. Det Anglosachsiska namnet, bottnar i att man beskriver en kyrka med rötter i Mähren medan det tyska namnet härleds ur en äldre, men pånyttfödd, kyrka. I båda fallen är benämningen kopplad till en suverän kyrka likställd med andra. Det Skandinaviska begreppet Herrnhutism syftar däremot på att anhängarna tillhör en sekt. Medan de teologiska skillnaderna mellan Brödrakyrkan och Lutherdomen var små var synen på kyrkans organisation fundamentalt olika. Brödrakyrkan organiserades i ett globalt nätverk utan nationella gränser. Nätverket bestod av byar, mindre städer, missionsstationer, diasporaarbetare, mindre celler av väckta anhängare etc. Utgångspunkten för det planerade rundabordssamtalet tas i att forskningen om Herrnhutismen varit fokuserad på de nationella lutherska enhetskyrkornas världsbild. Eftersom Skandinavien utgjorde ett gemensamt (missions-)område, Diasporan, borde rimligen Brödrakyrkan studeras i ett skandinaviskt sammanhang. Att den blygsamma forskning som genomförts om Brödrakyrkan dessutom skett på nationell grund har medfört att vårt vetande är såväl vagt som splittrat. Syftet med rundabordssamtalet är att påbörja en diskussion om den ”andra reformationen” och starta en process med syfte att initiera ny forskning om Herrnhutismen utan nationella skygglappar.

ABSTRACT. Forskerfellesskapet «Lars Levi Laestadius Online» er et prosjekt innen digital humaniora som samler forskere fra Norge, Sverige, Finland og Russland. Prosjektet er flervitenskapelig og har til hensikt å forske på, synliggjøre og tilrettelegge digitalt for forskning på Læstadius og hans mange vitenskapelige tilnærminger til livet i det nordlige Norden, i tillegg til å fokusere på hans virksomhet som vekkelsespredikant. Sesjonene søker å vise Læstadius’ påvirkning gjennom historien, og er frittstående i forhold til hverandre. Hensikten med første sesjonen er å løfte frem noen av fagene som Læstadius skrev avhandling i og i den andre sesjonen ønsker vi å vise til den religiøse påvirkningen han har hatt på sine etterfølgere. Sesjon #1 vil ledes av Roald E. Kristiansen.

Sesjon #1: 

1. Førsteamanuensis Rolf Inge Larsen: Læstadius og «de hundre talenters forbandelse». 
2. Stipendiat Kosti Joensuu: Vitalist psychology and philosophy of religion in Laestadius’ thought.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Rolf Inge Larsen, Tromsø: Læstadius og «de hundre talenters forbandelse»

Begrepet «de hundre talenters forbandelse» er hentet fra tromsøfilosofen Peter Wessel Zapffe og er på mange måter beskrivende for lappmarkspresten Lars Levi Læstadius. Historikeren Rolf Inge Larsen gir en kortfattet presentasjon av Læstadius’ fem akademiske avhandlinger, og drøfter om hans største samfunnspåvirkning likevel har vært resultat av hans virke som vekkelsespredikant. Spørsmålene som drøftes er hvordan og hvorfor vekkerrøsten i den nordiske ødemarken ser ut til å ha overdøvet hans eget vitenskapelige arbeid.

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Kosti Joensuu, Rovaniemi: Vitalist psychology and philosophy of religion in Laestadius’ thought

There is a strong emphasis on the significance of pre-reflective and pre-cognitive life of human being in Lars Levi Laestadius’ (1800-1861) philosophical theology. This experiential-existential emphasis is theoretically based on physiological medicine of enlightenment and its theological roots are in pietistic religiosity and Luther’s anti-philosophy. In this context I will question the nature of Laestadius’ critique of metaphysics and rationalism and the way how it paves a way for the later despise of intellectual rationalizations of living fate within northern pietism.

ABSTRACT. Nordic models and exceptionalism are regularly described and explained by reference to political factors (e.g., social movements, trade unions, proactive bureaucrats, Nordic cooperation) and historical and cultural factors (e.g., shared past, values, traditions, boarders, language). As such research moves into a normative register, these perspectives are often blended into a form of essentialism that reifies Nordic uniqueness.

Yet, the idea and image of the Nordics can be studied also as a branding phenomenon. A typical sign of branding is the strategic selection of features to be foregrounded, and that it has a purchase in a marketplace or audience – e.g., commerce, politics, or culture. At the same time, foreign actors (e.g., social movements, political parties and academics in the West) have helped shaping the discourse of the Nordics over the past century – with brands being constantly reformulated as the original ‘constructor’ loses full control. Thus, the Nordic image is arguably both formulated abroad, by foreigners, and at home, by domestic agents and actors.

Having this in mind, the proposed session for the Nordic Historical Meeting in 2017 discusses ideas and images of Nordicity through the leans of nation/regional branding with a point of departure in empirical historical research. We ask how, when, by whom, and where, Nordic images have emerged as brands (or not), and how these brands have been used and changed over time, in alliance or competition with national and/or foreign images.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Pauli Kettunen (University of Helsinki, Finland) & Klaus Petersen (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark): The Nordic Model in a World of Models
2. Svein Ivar Angell (University of Bergen, Norway): Peace as Trademark: Norway’s Educational Exchange during the Cold War
3. Kristine Kjærsgaard (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark): Danish Public Diplomacy at a Practitioner’s Level, 1949-73
4. Eirinn Larsen (University of Oslo, Norway) & Hilde Danielsen (UNI Rokkan Research, Norway): ´Winners of Gender Equality´ - Nordic Images in National Branding Efforts; Norway since the 1990s
5. Peter Stadius (University of Helsinki, Finland):  A Nordic black legend? 20th Century counterimages of progressive Scandinavia

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Pauli Kettunen (University of Helsinki, Finland) & Klaus Petersen (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark): The Nordic Model in a World of Models

The paper discusses Nordic branding and the circulation of images of the Nordic Model of welfare from the 1930s until the 2000s. Our focus will be on the so-called Golden Age of the 2 welfare state (ca. 1945-1980) and the links to the Cold War. Starting from the 1930s and based on the institutionalised cooperation between the Nordic nation states we find numerous examples of Nordic welfare state branding. This included on the one hand practical demonstrations of the comprehensive social security arrangements in the Nordic countries, and on the other hand labelling the Nordic model of society as a 'middle way' between socialism and US-style capitalism. We'll follow the construction of these images and the reception (and ´domistification´) of the images of the Nordic model of welfare internationally and in transnational arenas.

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Svein Ivar Angell (University of Bergen, Norway): Peace as Trademark: Norway’s Educational Exchange during the Cold War

The paper deals with Norway's pupil and teacher exchange programs in the period ca. 1950- 1980. Educational exchange in this period was conducted under the auspices of the Foreign Ministry and could be seen as part of Norway's public diplomacy. Educational exchange was seen as a way to promote a positive image of Norway abroad and also reflected a belief in the importance of culture and knowledge as ways to prevent international conflict. Norwegian politicians and diplomats understood themselves as representing a nation possessing specific cultural characteristics that enabled them to play a key peace-building role. This was also related to a perceived image of Scandinavia, containing "a highly developed education system and because the Nordic countries are not politically compromised in the former colonial areas", as stated in a governmental White Paper in 1960 (Angell 2015).

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Kristine Kjærsgaard (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark): Danish Public Diplomacy at a Practitioner’s Level, 1949-73

The paper analyses Danish public diplomacy vis-à-vis three other small states, Iceland, Switzerland and Portugal during specific periods of time, i.e. between 1949-73. The focus on these three countries forms a suitable platform for analysing the impact of the fact that all four involved countries can be characterized as small states as well as Danish public diplomacy within three different contexts of respectively history, identity and culture (Iceland), European trade (Switzerland) and decolonization, the Cold War and European trade (Portugal). The paper investigates Danish public diplomacy towards these three countries and contexts at a practitioner’s level by investigating the development and implementation of public diplomacy strategies by Denmark’s ambassador, Bodil Begtrup (1903-87), to Iceland (1949-56), Switzerland (1959-68) and Portugal (1968-73).

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Eirinn Larsen (University of Oslo, Norway) & Hilde Danielsen (UNI Rokkan Research, Norway): ´Winners of Gender Equality´ - Nordic Images in National Branding Efforts; Norway since the 1990s

This paper explores the use of Nordic images and reputations on gender equality in Norwegian foreign policy since the 1990s. With a point of departure in key policy documents and interviews with state bureaucrats from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and NORAD, it confirms not only a growing strategic use of gender issues in order to brand Norway abroad. It also demonstrates a turn from ´Norden to Norway´ on the one hand, and from gender back to women on the other, as result of an emerging effort to make Norway visible and competitive on the global reputation scene. For instance, the Norwegian foreign ministry established an own ambassador of gender and women’s rights in 2008 to give extra weight to the work on this issue after the Red-Green government in 2005 (and again in 2009) made women’s rights and gender equality an issue of political priority. The foreign minister himself also drew on the nation’s gender reputation to gain access to the former US Secretary of State Hilary Clinton for general diplomatic purposes (Danielsen, Larsen et al. 2013).

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Peter Stadius (University of Helsinki, Finland):  A Nordic black legend? 20th Century counterimages of progressive Scandinavia

The emergence of a positive image of the Scandinavian countries as progressive, peaceful, democratic and successful modernity projects, is paired with a parallel negative image construction, aiming at showing that the Nordic/Scandinavian utopia had more dystopian elements than was generally assumed outside the region itself. This paper will expose expressions of such dystopian discourse from a time period of 1890-1970, with geographical focus mainly on the Anglo-Saxon and Latin European countries. The aim is to show the dominating elements of this discourse, and its different contexts. This dystopian dimension of the Nordic brand is still present, sometimes explicitly and always latent in any given situation of conflict today. As such it is part of a very long term image discourse development, still affecting the Nordic position and space for influence in international politics and business.

ABSTRACT. This panel explores different perspectives of Norwegian-Chinese relations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. More specifically, our focus is set on mobility, migration, transactions and encounters. These phenomena were not only of key importance to the period studied here, commonly referred to as ‘the first wave of globalisation’ – they are equally as important today. It is our hope and ambition that this panel will add to the discussions on processes of globalisation in terms of offering new empirical knowledge, but also through addressing methodological and conceptual ambiguities within globalisation studies.

Our point of departure is set in the early 1890s. This period saw a dramatic acceleration and intensification of Chinese-Norwegian interactions as both merchants and missionaries were drawn to China – the largest single market and the most populous nation in the world. Albeit driven by different motives, merchants and missionaries were mobile, global in their outlook and had a cumulative effect in linking an increasingly self-conscious and nationalistic Norway with the wider world.

Examining Chinese, English, German, Norwegian and Swedish sources and literature, the papers explore Norwegian-Chinese interaction and tension through selected case studies. This is also a response to the call by some of the doyens of this field, which argue that we simply do not know enough about the transnational histories between China and the wider world (such as Osterhammel 1986; Westad 2012). Individually and collectively, these case studies are used as entries into discussing how so-called ‘grass root’ perspectives can complement as well as challenge the fields of migration and globalisation studies. Phrased slightly differently, what can micro histories tell us about macro processes? Furthermore, how and why can the humanities and historical research add to the field of globalisation studies, which hereto has been dominated by scholars from the social sciences?

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Camilla Brautaset (University of Bergen): Norway in China and China in Norway: Histories of globalisation from below.
2. Karina Hestad Skeie (NLA Høgskolen): The life-story of the Biblewoman Tosao – more than a stereotypical representation of a Chinese in Norway.
3. Olga Medvedeva (University of Bergen): Mobility in the age of globalisation: Christian Frederik Wyller Schjøth (1846- 1935) and the China’s Customs Service.
4. Malin Gregersen (University of Bergen): Rice riots and revolution in Changsha: Experiences of a Norwegian missionary.
5. Frida Brende Jenssen (NTNU): Norwegian foreign relations in East Asia - the role of individual diplomats.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

The life-story of the Biblewoman Tosao – more than a stereotypical representation of a Chinese in Norway
Karina Hestad Skeie, NLA Høgskolen

Tosao. A Chinese Biblewoman’s life-story was issued in Norway in 1911. It follows the Biblewoman Tosao from the Henan (Honan) province in central China’s life from birth to mature age. Born as the 5th girl into an increasingly impoverished family, Tosao experienced an unhappy, difficult childhood and a childless marriage before
coming in contact with Christian missionaries through her sister. Through education, the former illiterate Tosao learned to read and became a valued assistant to British and Norwegian missionaries. This book exemplifies how knowledge of named individuals from China, India, Madagascar and elsewhere, was present in Norway through a massive number of representations in photographs, writings and oral missionary accounts. While many descriptions mainly conveyed stereotypical images of an ‘other’, research has also argued that some, albeit second-hand sources filtered through missionary perspective, do provide unique knowledge of historical actors otherwise invisible (Griffiths 2008, Oden 2012, Lutz (ed.) 2012 a.o). Particular for mission sources is the fact that some named individuals are followed over time as their lives evolve (Oden 2012). This paper will draw on the rich literature on representation and Chinese Biblewomen, and analyse Tosao’s life-story with particular attention to how it sheds
light on the complex transnational dynamics of missionary work. Not only were individuals’ histories powerful motivations for mission-friends’ continued engagement. The book and other sources, vividly shows how deeply Tosao influenced the young female Norwegian missionary whom she assisted. Chinese Biblewomen are
an important part of Chinese women’s history and the history of Chinese Christianity. Claims Valerie Griffiths “The significant number of women evangelists in the fastgrowing church in China today points to the strength of the Christian female educational and evangelistic legacy first embodied in Chinese Biblewomen.” (2008:521)

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Mobility in the age of globalisation: Christian Frederik Wyller Schjøth (1846-1935) and the China’s Customs Service
Olga Medvedeva, Universitetet i Bergen

The China’s customs service (CCS) can be considered as one of the best examples of China’s internationalisation on the institutional level during the previous wave of globalisation in the late 19th – early 20th centuries. The service did not only represent a complex transnational organisation with a variety of functions, including trade
revenue collection, waterways management, meteorological observation, as well as diplomacy and education. The CCS also became a global meeting place for representatives from 40 nation-states, 279 of whom were Norwegians. The life stories of these individuals can contribute to better understanding of significant processes and
phenomena in the age of globalisation. The present study explores the biography of one of the CCS employees, Christian Frederik Wyller Schjøth (1846-1935), and aims to discuss how work in the customs influenced on geographical, social and cultural mobility.
C.F.W. Schjøth as a historical actor is little known in the literature. He was born in Christiania in a merchant family, and went to London at a young age. In 1868 he became one of the first Norwegian recruits in the CCS, where he served for 36 years. Frederik Schjøth was fascinated by the Chinese culture. He mastered the language,
and became an expert on the history of the Chinese currency. After retirement, he was appointed as the first China’s diplomatic representative in Norway. 

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Rice riots and revolution in Changsha: Experiences of a Norwegian missionary
Malin Gregersen, Universitetet i Bergen

The late 19th and early 20th century were turbulent times in China; throughout the decades, outbursts of violence and anti foreign campaigns followed in the footsteps of political turmoil and civil war. In 1902 the Norwegian Mission Society set up work in the Hunan province and founded a mission station in the province capital of
Changsha. This station became the meeting grounds of missionaries, Chinese Christians and other people from the city and further away. Here people worked and lived together, built relationships and networks.
For periods, political turmoil and violence shaped much of the interaction in the Hunanese capital. This paper focuses on one such event, known as the rice riots, in an exploration of cultural encounters and relationships in times of danger. In 1910, inflation, grain shortages and hoarding roused discontent. The response from the
governor triggered riots in the city, during which many of the city’s buildings with foreign connections were attacked. One of the first was the Norwegian mission station. In the middle of the night, the missionaries and their families fled for their lives through the city streets, aided by their Chinese friends, or hid in the houses of
their Chinese neighbors. In diaries, letters and articles the Norwegian missionaries wrote extensively about the events. Using narratives by one of them, Johan Torset, as a starting point, this presentation discusses individual interactions and experiences of being a foreigner, a Norwegian and a missionary, in the middle of a riot that targeted him as part of a larger group. His expressions of feelings of threat and danger but also of friendship and sense of belonging are addressed in relation to a larger framework of Chinese political history, missionary representations and Norwegian-Chinese cultural encounters.

ABSTRACT. Adgang til universitetet i Danmark i 1875 medførte ikke fuldt akademisk borgerskab til kvinder. De fik ikke adgang til embeder før 1921. De havde heller ikke fri adgang til en studentereksamen før 1903, men måtte læse privat. Mens kvinder formelt set blev inkluderet som akademiske borgere, blev de stadig betragtet som undtagelseskvinder. Kvinder fik adgang til at studere, samtidig med at videnskaben med det humboldtske universitet blev modernisereret, sekulariseret og videnskabeliggjort. Inden for videnskaben blomstrede samtidig medicinske studier, som kunne bruges som bevis på, at kvinder ikke var i stand til at arbejde intellektuelt. Kvindelighed og videnskabelighed kom i konflikt med hinanden. Er meritokratier en maskulin kultur, hvor gamle forestillinger om køn virker under overfladen? Og hvordan brød kvinder disse barrierer? Kan køn være nøgle til at forstå noget om den videnskabelige kultur? Hvordan blev kvindelighed og videnskabelighed hinandens modsætninger? Hvorfor har det kroplige og det kvindelige været nærmest urent i relation til rationalitet? Og hvordan lykkedes det samtidig videnskaben at få skabt en videnskabelig etos, som hævder neutralitet og usynliggør mandsdominans? I Danmark et det snart 100 år siden, kvinder fik adgang til stillinger i stat og kommuner, og 150 år siden, at kvinder fik lov til at studere. Derfor er det tiden til at se nærmere på de kvindelige akademikeres historie.

Bente Rosenbeck, professor på Center for kønsforskning, Nordiske Studier og Sprogvidenskab, Københavns Universitet. Medredaktør og medforfatter af Clios Døtre gennem hundrede år fra 1994 og udgav i 2014 bogen Har videnskaben køn? Kvinder i forskning.

Pelle Oliver Larsen, videnskabelig assistent ved Aarhus Universitet, Institut for Kultur og Samfund, Afdeling for Historie, har med udgangspunkt i sin ph.d.-afhandling Professoratet. Kampen om Det Filosofiske Fakultet 1870-1920, Museum Tusculanum i 2016, skrevet artiklen ”Universitetets køn. Kønsnormer og kvinders karrieremuligheder ved Københavns Universitets filosofiske fakultet 1875-1915”, Historisk tidsskrift 112, 2012.

ABSTRACT. During the 20th Century, seismology, the study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through the Earth, had developed from a small, isolated discipline to a large, well-funded research area. This growth took place against the backdrop of the Cold War with its political and military agendas, and seismology attracted special interest because it provided tools for the detection of nuclear weapons tests.

Born in a time when few women were allowed to hold senior scientific positions, Danish seismologist Inge Lehmann (1888-1993) had an extraordinary career: In 1928 she was appointed Head of the Seismic Section at the Danish Geodetic Institute, where she published evidence for the Earths inner core in 1936. After her retirement in 1953 she continued her work at research institutions in the USA partly funded by US military projects.

Through a biographical approach to her life and career, a much larger story is revealed of how international seismology developed from a small, obscure discipline to a science with powerful geopolitical implications. Furthermore, as an early internationally recognised female scientist, Lehmann not only personifies the interaction between science and international politics but also the structural challenges and personal costs experienced by early female scientists Thereby, Lehmann’s career can be contextualised into a wider framework of discipline development, international politics and gender studies. This paper presents main results from my work on her scientific biography.

ABSTRACT. In this lecture the focus will be on the influence that reforming of public education in Iceland and increase in publication of newspapers and journals, in the years around the year 1880, had on public debate in Iceland in 1880-1900. In that aspect I am emphasising the possibilities that common people had to make their voices heard, what effect it had, what topics they raised and how the debate affected local communities. The main question of the lecture will be: Is there a clear connection between reformation of education and more widespread publication and increased participation of the general public in associations and in public debate in this period?

This lecture is related to my doctoral-research. The main aim of it is to analyse how the ‘general public’ in Iceland acted and reacted to social changes in Iceland in the years 1880-1920, focusing on what can be called democratic practices, and how these practices impacted Iceland’s social and political development. The study focuses on what notions ‘the common Icelander’ had towards democratic debate and how s/he participated and expressed views, on the origins of these ideas and how (or if) views from the grassroots influenced governmental actions.

With the foundation of various associations in Iceland, in the last quarter of the 19th century, general democratic participation increased in Iceland. This was especially the case among people who had limited democratic rights, such as eligibility in parliamentary elections and the right to vote. By focusing on ‘the general public’ – the broad section of the population who had limited access to political power because of their social status, gender, or age – my intention is to broaden our vision of the social and political transformation in Iceland in the late 19th century.

ABSTRACT. Den franske historikern Marc Bloch konstaterade i en berömd formulering att begreppet jordägande i princip saknade mening i det feodala samhället. På nära nog all jord vilade en rad skyldigheter. Dessa kunde riktas inte bara från bonden, bondens herre, herrens herre och så vidare längs den feodala skalan, utan även från exempelvis bondens släkt och herrarnas släkt. I kontrast till den bild växte successivt en modern eller borgerlig äganderätt fram, där ägandet var absolut och där en rad mer eller mindre latenta anspråk på jorden kringskurits för att göra äganderätten knuten till en individ.

Denna tankegång om en successiv övergång från släkt (och herrar) till en ensam självägande individ kan sägas vara en central del av moderniseringsprocessen och går att återfinna i flera moderniseringsteorier. Bidragen i denna session problematiserar emellertid denna utveckling ur ett flertal aspekter och visar framförallt hur bandet mellan jord och släkt hade påfallande stor betydelse i Skandinavien, både i praktiken och som idé i den politiska diskussionen långt in på 1800-talet. Bidragen behandlar hur släkträtten till jord uppfattades och hanterades av olika politiska aktörer, men även hur relationen mellan å ena sidan jord och å andra sidan släkt och familj tog sig uttryck i praktiken.

Bidragen hämtar exempel från Norge, Danmark och Sverige kring ett i dåtiden mycket centralt tema, rätten till jordegendom. Hur rätten till jorden reglerats har givetvis varit av största betydelse i alla tre länderna, men historiskt sett saknas i stor utsträckning ambitioner att analysera frågan komparativt; frågan om släkt och jord har varit starkt knuten till den nationella historieskrivningen. Ambitionen med denna session är därför att lyfta centrala aspekter ovanför nationsgränserna för att kunna diskutera både likheter och skillnader mellan länderna.

PRÆSENTATIONER:

1. Asbjørn Romvig Thomsen (Rigsarkivet, Danmark): Slægt og jord – i et dansk landbosamfund 1750-1850
2. Håkon Evju (Universitetet i Oslo, Norge): Brudd og kontinuitet i debatten om den norske odelsretten, 1814-1860
3. Martin Dackling (Göteborgs Universitet, Sverige): Släktjordsdebatten i Sverige och Norge 1810-1860

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Asbjørn Romvig Thomsen (Rigsarkivet, Danmark): Slægt og jord – i et dansk landbosamfund 1750-1850

Dette oplæg skal handle om slægtens betydning før og efter det danske landbosamfunds overgang fra fæstesamfund til selvejersamfund. Denne overgang var et af de vigtigste resultater af landboreformperioden, som prægede Danmark i de sidste årtier af 1700-tallet. Det er meget forskelligt fra lokalsamfund til lokalsamfund, hvornår overgangen fandt sted, men i reglen skete det i løbet af de 100 år, der gik fra midten af 1700-tallet til midten af 1800- tallet. I det traditionelle fæstesamfund var jorden og gårdene ejet af en godsejer, som fæstede (lejede) jorden ud til bønderne. Som en del af landboreformkomplekset blev det gjort nemmere og stadigt mere oplagt for godsejerne at sælge jorden til bønderne – og for bønderne at købe jorden. Denne moderniseringsproces, hvor jorden blev privatiseret og så at sige demokratiseret, fik stor indflydelse på de unge landboers muligheder for at få foden under eget bord. Oplægsholderen har lavet et mikrohistorisk studie af tre danske nabosogne, hvor denne proces er blevet fulgt på individ-, familie- og slægtsniveau – ikke mindst for at afdække de enkeltes muligheder (risici) for social mobilitet. I oplægget vil han præsentere resultaterne af undersøgelsen, der både består af kvantitative analyser og mere kvalitativt prægede analyser af enkeltindividers livsløb.

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Håkon Evju (Universitetet i Oslo, Norge): Brudd og kontinuitet i debatten om den norske odelsretten, 1814-1860

Den norske odelsretten gir familiemedlemmer forkjøps- og løsningsrett til jordeiendom på landet solgt ut av slekten. Slektsretten har en historie i Norge tilbake til middelalderen, fikk grunnlovsvern i 1814, og er, til tross for endringer, fortsatt en del av norsk lov. Odelsretten har imidlertid også vært heftig debattert helt siden en borgerlig eller opplyst offentlighet vokste fram i Danmark-Norge omkring midten av 1700-tallet. Nyere forskning har lagt vekt på hvordan denne debatten om odelsretten fram mot Eidsvoll 1814 og odelsloven av 1821, splittet den norske embetsmannsopinionen og speilet ulike oppfatninger omkring tiltakende handelsvirksomhet og markedsøkonomiske transaksjoner i det norske samfunnet. Dette innlegget vil utforske i hvordan debatten om odelsretten i Norge utviklet seg på 1800- tallet fram mot forsøkene på å få grunnlovsvernet av odelsretten opphevet i årene fra 1848 og fram mot 1860. Flere utviklingstrekk gjør dette interessant. I debatten fram til og med 1814, samt dels også fram mot 1821, dominerte embetsmenn og byborgere. Særlig embetsmennene var splittet i synet på odelsretten. Utover på 1800-tallet fant imidlertid de to elitegruppene i større grad sammen og de inntok en mer entydig negativ innstilling til slektsretten. Samtidig ble bøndene en sterkere kraft i politikken og bondestortingsmennene involverte seg sterkt til forsvar for odelsretten. Hvordan påvirket disse endringene, og kanskje særlig bøndenes mer synlige tilstedeværelse, debatten? Hva slags argumentasjon gjorde bøndene bruk av? Hvordan skiller den offentlige diskusjonen om odelsretten i årene 1848-1860 seg fra den tidligere debatten på begynnelsen av århundret? Slike spørsmål vil stå i sentrum for dette innlegget.

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Martin Dackling (Göteborgs Universitet, Sverige): Släktjordsdebatten i Sverige och Norge 1810-1860

Inspirerade av bland annat införandet av Code Civil 1804 inledde både Sverige och Norge i början av 1800-talet en översyn av civillagstiftningen. Inriktningen på arbetet hade liknande utgångspunkter och handlade i flera avseenden om en liberalisering av äldre lagstiftning med målet att ge individer större frihet och handlingsutrymme på bekostnad av bland annat kollektiva rättigheter hos släkt- och familjemedlemmar. Det gällde inte minst för den viktigaste resursen, jorden. Reformarbetet tog dock mycket lång tid i båda länderna och kom dessutom att leda i olika riktning. Särskilt påfallande är detta under 1850-talet, när både odelsretten och dess svenska motsvarighet, bördsrätten, var starkt omdebatterade, men där Sverige avvecklade bördsrätten 1863 kom odelsretten i Norge snarast att gå stärkt ur krisen. Varför tog utvecklingen i Sverige och Norge så olika vägar? I detta bidrag söks svar på denna fråga genom en jämförande undersökning av debatten om bördsrätt och odelsrett i mitten av 1800-talet. Frågan om bördsrätt och odelsrett sätts också in i ett bredare sammanhang med fokus på hur en äldre släktbunden jordlagstiftning i båda länderna blev reformerad under 1800-talets första hälft. Analysen är inriktad på de politiska diskussionerna, men det gör inte de praktiska förhållandena oväsentliga. Tvärtom, en väsentlig fråga i analysen är hur uppfattningen om praxis vid exempelvis arvsdelning och klander genom bördsrätt/odelsrett gestaltade sig i den nationella debatten. I vilken utsträckning anfördes de praktiska förhållandena till stöd för lagreformer, och på vilka sätt kunde de tas till intäkt för att bevara rådande förhållanden?

ABSTRACT. The panel discusses the perspectives of the ways of habitation and spatial practices in the city as well as in the countryside. It concerns the reformation and development of habitation, both in theory and practice. Habitation is and has always been an essential element of everyday life. Therefore, changes in living conditions had usually a wide impact on everyday social practices of individual households. Moreover, these changes reflect the developments in communal and societal -levels. Reformation of habitation as a part of larger change in social practices is addressed in the papers. Altogether the panel offers a long-term view on the developments in spatial practices.

The aspects of kinship, demography and economy have dominated the historiography of households, while the role of space in the making of domestic liaisons has often been marginalised. The notion of household has been determined with a 'locational criterion' already by Peter Laslett, where a household consists of a group of people living under a common roof. However, detailed approaches to the shaping of households within the framework of domestic space and vernacular architecture has not yet been effectuated.

For example, the reformation of habitation and questions of private and public space are considered both in the urban context and countryside vicarages of the 18th century. Furthermore, the changes in the spatial practices of the rural households in the beginning of the 20th century are reflected through the efforts in privatizing and segregating the space of the small farms. The panel also discusses how the living arrangements of the households and their development are described in the premodern source materials – especially in the parish registers, which were usually written after patriarchal household system.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Henrik Mattjus (University of Tampere, Finland): Reforming spatial practises – Enlightening the Small Farmer: Finnish type-plans and guidebooks of the 1920s and 1930s as ’help to self-help’
2. Tiina Miettinen (University of Tampere, Finland): “Home is where the heart is” – or not? Reshaping servant maidens habitation in 17th and 18th century Sweden and Finland
3. Panu Savolainen (University of Turku, Finland): Multidisciplinary approach to habitation and domestic space in 18th century Swedish town (Åbo)
4. Ella Viitaniemi (University of Tampere, Finland): Reforming the vicarages – homes, households and public places in the 18th century Sweden

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Henrik Mattjus (University of Tampere, Finland): Reforming spatial practises – Enlightening the Small Farmer: Finnish type-plans and guidebooks of the 1920s and 1930s as ’help to self-help’

After gaining its independence in 1917 and the civil war in 1918 Finland was facing several challenges. As politically divided and heavily agrarian, but at the same time fast industrializing and urbanizing society posed several, and sometimes contradictory, developments. After the end of the World War One, the widespread economic crisis placed new difficulties for the newly found nation. In order to relief the political pressures within the state an ideology resting on small-farmership was promoted. This was evident especially after the former system of tenement farming was abolished with legislation in the beginning of the 1920s. Besides political reasons, the matter was also an economic one. Hence the self-help became a defining factor of this ideology. One of the most prominent aspects of these developments on the Finnish countryside were the efforts to modernize the farms through changing the ways of everyday living and working. Consequently, the state and various societies involved with the public benefit made joint efforts to improve the quality of living in the rural areas. This ‘help to self-help’ was expressed for example in the type-plans and guidebooks for small farmers. In this paper I will scrutiny how modernization was promoted through reforming the space and spatiality in the small farms. The focus of the analysis is on the inhabited space and on the everyday living and working. The paper will show how the planning experts, such as architects and civil engineers, depicted modernization of the small farmer’s home

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Tiina Miettinen (University of Tampere, Finland): “Home is where the heart is” – or not? Reshaping servant maidens habitation in 17th and 18th century Sweden and Finland

In my presentation, I´m going to research how ordinary people in 17th and 18th century understand the concept of home. Society met new kind of problem after Reformation in 16th century. Catechism underlined master´s power over his family and household: Servants separated from master, his wife and children (the nuclear family). After Reformation, the household had seen in Catechism like a hierarchial microcosmos reflecting the structure of macrocosmos where god ruled and exerted his power over the entire creation. This type of household had described in the provincial administration registers, like church books and population registers, which we used as source material. In 1664 and 1688 became the first servant regulation laws (in Swedish: legostadgan), which strongly regulated movement of servants and other landless people in Sweden and Finland. Every unmarried person should signed up to some landowner´s household as a servant or cottager. The vagrancy was illegal. These servant regulations also determined how landless people should wrote down in different records, like church books and population registers. After these laws, unmarried servants moved every year to one household to other. Many questions come up: Which place servant girl could call as her home. Was servants home in the farmhouse, where they served, or some other place, for example their parent´s cabin? Where they exactly sleep or eat? Had they real homes until they had married? What was the situation of unmarried servant, who never married? Where is his/her home?

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Panu Savolainen (University of Turku, Finland): Multidisciplinary approach to habitation and domestic space in 18th century Swedish town (Åbo)

Despite of the recent decades' growing interest on spatial history ja everyday life, relatively little is known about the practices of living in early modern towns. The aim of my paper is to tackle the everydayness of living and domestic architecture using simultaneously different records describing a specific late 18th century town house in the town of Turku (Åbo), nowadays in Finland. In the late 18th century, Turku the fourth largest town of Sweden and a remarkable port, with episcopal see and university, but also a rapidly growing population (appr. 10 000 in 1800) of lower classes. The heterogenous population and the influx of people offers a representativbe example of changing spatial practices and living and working. The theoretical issues of the notion of household, co-habitation, lodgers and the dichotomy of amalgamation of living/working are approached using tax records, court proceedings and fire policy insurances. The paper intends to understand the complexity of early modern urban living by the simultaneous examination of sources describing the urban fabric and the social formation of everyday life and household.

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Ella Viitaniemi (University of Tampere, Finland): Reforming the vicarages – homes, households and public places in the 18th century Sweden

The vicarages at rural areas had several different functions, which were further reformed during the 18th century. First of all the vicarages were residences and homes for clergy families. But they also functioned as centers for local social life. They also gathered distant and close relatives, for short visitations or for longer stay. Young men could serve as assistant pastors, young women were sent to learn housekeeping skills. Vicarages offered shelter and home for poor relatives, like widows and orphans, who had no other place to go. The vicarage functioned also as a working (and living) place for several servants. Hence the vicarages were actually formed as social centers. Secondly, vicarages functioned as profitable and large farms. In age of utilitarianism many priests were interested in the development of agriculture and they tested new cultivating methods. These vicarages were set as example for surrounding community to reform the peasant agriculture. Thirdly, vicarages were public places, which were usually situated close to the parish church or chapel. According the Swedish law the members had to build and maintain the vicarage and the required outbuildings. Hence the peasantry controlled the building costs and usually resisted the reforms. Still, despite the conflicts, the architecture of vicarages and the arrangements of outbuildings were renewed during the 18th century.

ABSTRACT. The three papers in this session address different aspects of papal communication in the central middle ages. Together they aim to provide a synchronic and diachronic view of the multi-faceted and multi-medial communication from the papal curia to the world outside the curia, and to trace how the curia attempted to promote papal authority through various forms of communication in what was a time of expansion for papal authority

ABSTRACT. The roundtable aims at discussing the idea and the results of the project in the light of five years experience in running a big effort in deconstructing and reforming national history. The five speakers introduce selected themes of the projec and reflect their experiences of "rethinking" Finland - or any society.

The chair is professor Pertti Haapala, the director of the CoE, and the speakers and their topics are:

1. Pertti Haapala: Strugling with methodological nationalism. The speech discusses why methological nationalism has remained so strong and why it is difficult to overcome it in research and in public discussion. The major idea is to present the research strategy of the CoE, how it has succeeded and how the project is expected to affect the paradigm of national historiography and in society.
2. Nils Erik Villstrand & Petri Karonen: Continuities and discontinuities in explaining the history of Finland (or any society). The speech analysis the methodology and outcomes of the long-term history of Finland. Villstrand employes the concept of resilience in explaining the long history of Finland under the realms of Sweden and Russia and as a transnational reality. Karonen's view is the role shocks and recovery, i.e. the "abnormal" phases and turns in societal development.
3. Pirjo Markkola & Marjaana Niemi: Constructing and deconstructing Finnishness (and other national identities). Speakers demonstrate how rethinking communities and identities in (national) histories challenge the given spaces, borders, boundaries and differences. This enables to problematise notions of communities as close-knit units consisting of a homogenous population and to give greater emphasis on differentiations of class, citizenship, religion, language and gender. The multiplicity of identities in history is not only intersectional but also transnational.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Prof. Pertti Haapala: Strugling with methodological nationalism.

The speech discusses why methological nationalism has remained so strong and why it is difficult to overcome it in research and in public discussion. The major idea is to present the research strategy of the CoE, how it has succeeded and how the project is expected to affect the paradigm of national historiography and in society.
 

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Prof. Nils Erik Villstrand & Prof. Petri Karonen: Continuities and discontinuities in explaining the history of Finland (or any society). 

The speech analysis the methodology and outcomes of the longterm history of Finland. Villstrand employes the concept of resilience in explaining the long history of Finland under the realms of Sweden and Russia and as a transnational reality. Karonen's view is the role shocks and recovery, i.e. the "abnormal" phases and turns of societal development. 

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Prof. Pirjo Markkola & Prof. Marjaana Niemi: Constructing and deconstructing Finnishness (and other national identities).

Speakers demonstrate how rethinking communities and identities in (national) histories challenge the given spaces, borders, boundaries and differences. This approach enables us to problematise notions of communities as close-knit units consisting of a homogenous population and to give greater emphasis on differentiations of class, citizenship, religion, language and gender. The multiplicity of identities in history is not only intersectional but also transnational. They discuss the ways in which identities have been constructed and depicted in the (mainly) Finnish historiography. Markkola addresses the issues from the point of view of communities,and
Niemi discusses identities as a scholarly category.

ABSTRACT. Founded in 1945, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) initially focused on the reconstruction of education after World War II. The purpose of this proposal is to present a study of UNESCO’s role in the shaping of educational concepts and research in the context of Cold War politics. Not only have historians come to recognize that period “as the foundry of our current world order” (Gilman, 2015, p. 10), it can also be regarded as the foundry of the contemporary constellation of “global governance” in education, in which UNESCO plays a much smaller role than it did in the first three decades of its existence. In that respect we propose an intellectual history approach insofar as we pay close attention to the interplay of ideas, institutions and individual actors in the context of the particular intellectual, economic and political climate of the Cold War years. Christian Ydesen’s study further employs a conceptual history approach that places a greater emphasis on “the central place of language and translation in political and social discourse” (Richter, 2012, p. 1). Conceptual history aims at shedding light on the relationship between concepts or discourses and political and social activity. As it questions the taken-for-granted assumptions in the use of concepts, conceptual and intellectual history can be seen as a style of political theorizing (Palonen, 2002). The ultimate aim of this intellectual and conceptual history is to comment critically on the present meaning of education and of UNESCO’s role in shaping it. The study will draw on three different archives: The Joseph Lauwerys Papers at the UCL Institute of Education Library in London, the library of the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning in Hamburg, and the UNESCO archives in Paris.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Maren Elfert (University of Alberta, Canada): UNESCO, the Cold War and the downfall of literacy
2. Christian Ydesen (Aalborg University, Denmark): Education for peace and international understanding
3. Elisabeth Teige (Volda University College, Norway): UNESCO and conceptualizing human rights in education

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Maren Elfert (University of Alberta, Canada): UNESCO, the Cold War and the downfall of literacy

Literacy has been a priority of UNESCO since its inception, and it constituted a key element of UNESCO’s first large-scale educational program, fundamental education. The newly independent countries of the South also lobbied for literacy after joining UNESCO in large numbers in the 1950s and 1960s. UNESCO’s first two Director-Generals, Julian Huxley and Jaime Bodet Torres, accorded priority to literacy, and so did René Maheu, who took office as UNESCO’s Director-General in 1962. Maheu’s dream was a universal literacy campaign, an endeavor he considered worthy of the Nobel peace prize (Jones & Coleman, 2005, p. 202). After the delegates of the 12th General Conference, held in 1962, approved a World Campaign for Universal Literacy, UNESCO submitted a proposal for the realization of such a campaign to the UN General Assembly (Jones & Coleman, 2005, p. 202). The United States were instrumental in preventing the initiative (Dorn & Ghodsee, 2012, p. 390). Around the same time the U.S. withdrew its support to literacy programs in Brazil (Kirkendall, 2010, p. 26). It became increasingly difficult for UNESCO to attract funding for literacy as the World Bank and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) pursued an “instrumental” approach to literacy while UNESCO regarded literacy “as an end objective” (Memorandum by Duncan Ballantine, the World Bank’s education director, 1968, cited in Jones, 1992, p. 97). This study will examine the history of the downfall of literacy in the 1960s and 1970s. My assumption is that it needs to be understood not only in the context of the Cold War when literacy “became hopelessly entangled with fears of socialist revolution” (Dorn & Ghodsee, 2012, p. 398), but also in the context of the marginalization of other demands expressed by the Third World countries, such as the New International Economic Order, and the 2 shift of power and authority in “education for development” from UNESCO to the World Bank (Elfert, 2016).

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Christian Ydesen (Aalborg University, Denmark): Education for peace and international understanding

The ambition to use education as a means to promote global peace and international understanding was on UNESCO’s agenda from the organization’s very inception (Ydesen and Kulnazarova, 2016). However, education for peace had already been a key concern of organizations such as the League of Nations and the New Education Fellowship and some regions of the world had already made great progress in the field; not least Scandinavia and Latin America (Elmersjo and Lindmark, 2010; Ydesen and Castro, 2016). From a conceptual history perspective UNESCO had to connect with an already existing concept filled with meanings and connotations. In its early years UNESCO organized a great number of seminars with delegates from member states and meetings of experts on the subjects of history education and international understanding. One of the purposes of the seminars was to find common ground; not least in terms of the very concept of education for peace and how to organize the programme surrounding the concept. Gradually the programme changed and UNESCO moved from ambitions of being a clearing house and mediator for international and national education for peace initiatives to a humbler role as a call-in advisor. This change was greatly induced by the geopolitical configuration of the cold war. It is the ambition of this contribution to explore the continuities and ruptures in the use, meaning and connotations of the concept of education for peace as it is in evidence in UNESCO’s archives. Triangulating the three archives mentioned in the introduction will provide a solid base for such a research endeavour.

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Elisabeth Teige (Volda University College, Norway): UNESCO and conceptualizing human rights in education

From the start, one of the most important tasks of UNESCO was to translate human rights into practice through the means of education. The main tool of the organization possessed to fulfil this task was a series of seminars on education for international understanding. Here participants discussed, among other topics, what human rights education was, and how it could be organized. The time period will cover the prelude to and early stages of the cold war, but also the period where the Universal Declaration was drafted. The message had to be adapted to local cultures and contexts in order to not to offend states with different value systems than democracy. This became even more important in a cold war context. The discussions on human rights education and the drafting of the Universal Declaration were parallel processes. In 1947 UNESCO was asked by the chairman of the Commission on Human Rights of the UN, Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt, to present its view on the principles underlying such a Declaration (Glendon 2002). UNESCO had at this point begun work on a conference of philosophers which was to discuss the subject of Human Rights in general. Thus, within UNESCO and outside there were discussions on what human rights were, how they could be framed and how they could be disseminated and understood. But how was the concept of human rights operationalized by the participants in the UNESCOseminars? How did their view on human rights influence discussions on what human rights education was and for whom such education could be done? To answer these questions, I will take as my point of departure the first UNESCO seminar on international understanding held in Sevres in 1947 and the seminar on “Teaching about human rights” in Woudschoten in 1952 as well as the work of the UNESCO philosophical commission.

ABSTRACT. Aalborg Universitet og en række nordjyske museer gennemfører i samarbejde et treårigt forskningsprojekt, finansieret af Velux-fonden, om Atlantvolden i Nordjylland i lokalt, regionalt, nationalt og internationalt perspektiv. Projektet har som formål at øge bevidstheden om Atlantvolden som kulturarv blandt forskere, i det brede publikum og hos de offentlige myndigheder, og at styrke samarbejdet mellem bunkermuseerne, regionalt, nationalt og internationalt. Det overordnede mål er at stimulere interessen for den danske del af de utallige bunkeranlæg, der under 2. verdenskrig blev anlagt langs den europæiske vestkyst, som kulturhistorisk erindringssted hos publikum og i offentligheden. I Atlantvoldsprojektet anskues anlæggene i et sammenhængende perspektiv i forbindelse med mikrostudier af enkelte lokaliteter og studier i særlige temaer, som kan danne grundlag for en regional syntese. En sådan regional syntese, baseret på særstudier og mikrohistoriske lokalstudier, vil indeholde nationale og internationale perspektiver, der i sjælden grad tydeliggør aksen lokal-regional-national-international, og omvendt. Der gives kun få tilfælde i historien, hvor internationale begivenheder, i dette tilfælde den krigsmæssige udvikling under 2. verdenskrig, får direkte og konkrete konsekvenser i en omfattende mængde lokalområder. I den forstand blev Europas vestkyst gjort til en fremskudt frontlinje i forsvaret af det tysk besatte Europa. Atlantvolden var permanent en potentiel og til tider reel kampzone i civilsamfundet, som spænder fra de dansk baserede anlægs beskydning af overflyvende styrker fra Royal Air Force, til invasionsområderne i Normandiet. 

Projektet deler sig på tre hovedtemaer: 1. Atlantvolden og dens virkningshistorie frem til 1945. 2. Atlantvoldens anlæg og deres brug efter 1945. 3. Stedbunden formidling. Hertil kommer et ph.d.-projekt om Atlantvolden som kulturarv. De foreløbige midtvejsresultater fra forskningsprojektet, vil vi gerne præsentere for en kreds af fagligt interesserede kolleger på det Nordiske historikermøde i form af to sammenhængende arrangementer: En rundbordsdiskussion som præsenterer en række temaer i det bunkerhistoriske forskningsfelt, som bliver fulgt op med ekskursion.

OPLÆG:

1. Den militære fæstnings fascinationskraft, ved museumsinspektør, ph.d. Henrik Gjøde Nielsen, Kystmuseet.
2. Bevaring eller forsvinden, ved museumsinspektør, ph.d.stipendiat Chrestina Dahl, Vendsyssel Historiske Museum og Aalborg Universitet.
3. Nordjylland i den tyske invasionsforsvarsstrategi, ved museumschef, ph.d. Jens Andersen, Museumscenter Hanstholm.
4. Hanstholm fæstning og by, ved museumschef, ph.d. Jens Andersen, Museumscenter Hanstholm.

ABSTRACT. Äldres liv och hälsa utgör en av framtidens största globala utmaningar, då en allt större del av befolkningen idag når en hög ålder. Utifrån flera aspekter behövs därför kunskap om denna helt nya demografiska situation. Forskningsfältet kring äldre och åldrande utgör därmed ett växande forskningsfält med stor samhällsrelevans. Utöver den förändrade demografin, har omfattande samhällsförändringar med industrialisering och urbanisering på olika sätt haft konsekvenser för äldres livsvillkor. Därtill har välfärdsstatens utbyggnad, den äldrepolitik som förts och vilken service som ges till äldre också haft stor inverkan. Synen på den äldre och vad åldrande innebär har förändrats avsevärt under senare decennier. Bilden av vem som är äldre idag är något helt annat än vem som betraktades som äldre för hundra år sedan. Idag råder drömmen om den goda ålderdomen, med tid för vänner, barnbarn, en aktiv fritid, god hälsa och god ekonomi, samtidigt som fattigpensionärer och en ålderdom präglad av ensamhet och sjukdom är en verklighet. Att utifrån rådande föreställningar kritiskt granska och analysera förändring och variation i vem de äldre är i olika tider, vilka förutsättningar de har haft och vad som har format deras förväntningar på sin ålderdom kan hjälpa oss att bättre förstå länkarna mellan det förflutna, vår samtid och framtiden. För att möta de ökade behov som den växande andel äldre medfört behövs alltså inte bara kunskap om vad som karakteriserar gruppen äldre idag utan också vad som präglat den historiskt. I denna session har vi samlat forskare som alla utifrån ett historiskt perspektiv studerar äldres liv och hälsa i en nordisk kontext. Vi tar upp frågor kring de äldres boendeförhållanden, socioekonomiska villkor och sociala kontext, förändringar och kontinuitet i äldrepolitik och i den service som erbjudits äldre, samt den centrala betydelse mat haft i äldrepolitiken.

PRÆSENTATIONER

1. Ulrika Lagerlöf Nilsson (Göteborgs universitet, Sverige) & Helene Castenbrandt (Göteborgs universitet, Sverige): Åldrande och samhälle: förändring och kontinuitet i äldres livsvillkor i Sverige under 1900-talet
2. Kari Tove Elvbakken (Universitetet i Bergen, Norge): Eldre, eldreomsorg og eldrepolitikk – kontinuitet og endringer, 1950-
3. Tenna Jensen (Københavns Universitet, Danmark): Mad til ældre i Danmark: Madens betydning i dansk ældrepolitik 1892-

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Ulrika Lagerlöf Nilsson (Göteborgs universitet, Sverige) & Helene Castenbrandt (Göteborgs universitet, Sverige): Åldrande och samhälle: förändring och kontinuitet i äldres livsvillkor i Sverige under 1900-talet

I vårt paper presenterar vi vår pågående forskning om äldres livsvillkor i Sverige under 1900- talet. Det övergripande syftet är att studera och förklara vad som har karakteriserat de äldres förändrade livsvillkor. Detta görs genom att länka samman de äldres boendeförhållanden, sociala kontext och socioekonomiska villkor med den historiska kontexten, ett tillvägagångssätt som är etablerat inom s.k. life-course forskning. Vårt case är Göteborg, och källmaterialet utgörs av de så kallade H70-studierna som insamlats vid Göteborgs universitet sedan 1971. Detta material innehåller födelsekohorter med kvinnor och män födda 1901– 1902, 1906–1907, 1911–1912, 1922 och 1930 som följts från att de fyllt 70 år. Materialet består av individer folkbokförda i Göteborg och sammanlagt ingår 6000 deltagare i studien. Deltagarna har genomgått fysiska undersökningar, svarat på frågeformulär och deltagit i mer djupgående intervjuer. Under 1900-talet har särskilt stora förändringar skett för äldre med tanke på möjligheterna till att gå i pension, ha eget hushåll m.m., men detaljerna kring hur dessa förändringar har påverkat livsvillkoren är dock till stora delar outredda. För att undersöka vad dessa möjligheter och begräsningar inneburit över tid utgår vi från det teoretiska begreppet kapabilitet. Ökad kunskap om den historiska utvecklingen kring äldre hjälper oss att bättre förstå hur det förflutna, vår samtid och föreställningar om framtiden hör samman – en kunskap som är viktig att ha tillgång till inom det växande forskningsområdet om äldres liv och hälsa.

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Kari Tove Elvbakken (Universitetet i Bergen, Norge): Eldre, eldreomsorg og eldrepolitikk – kontinuitet og endringer, 1950-

I dette innlegget rettes oppmerksomheten om kontinuitet og endring i eldrepolitikken i Norge gjennom de siste tiårene. Et utvalg av sentrale offentlige utredinger og stortingsdokumenter brukes som materiale sammen med et utvalg av politiske dokumenter fra en eller to byer. Mange byer utformet politikk, tjenester og tiltak for eldre som siden er blitt statlig støttet og regulert. Derfor er det særlig interessant å undersøke byer, heller enn kommuner generelt. Med innlegget er ønsket å finne fram til karakteristika ved eldrepolitikkens mål og virkemidler gjennom de siste tiårene. Et bakteppe for eldrepolitikkens mål og virkemidler er forståelser av utviklingen av eldrebefolkningen og deres situasjon, økonomisk, sosialt og helsemessig. Endringer og kontinuiteter i slike forståelser vil være ett tema i innlegget. Forholdet mellom hjemmebasert og institusjonsbasert omsorg, forholdet mellom stat og kommune og mellom offentlige og private tilbydere av eldreomsorgstjenester er videre spørsmål som drøftes. Kontinuitet og endringer i eldrepolitikk, bruk av virkemidler og utforming av tjenester forventes å variere med generelle politiske verdier og ståsted, men det vil også undersøkes om ideer og eksempler fra den danske og svenske eldrepolitikken kan spores i den norske eldrepolitikken.

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Tenna Jensen (Københavns Universitet, Danmark): Mad til ældre i Danmark: Madens betydning i dansk ældrepolitik 1892-

I de seneste årtier har internationale organisationer som WHO og EU haft en stigende opmærksom på betydningen af mad og ernæring for ældre menneskers helbred og livskvalitet (Thoms 2015 upubl., Albrechtsen 2016). Også i Danmark er mad til ældre blevet et højt prioriteret og omdiskuteret element i dansk ældrepolitik og ikke mindst i medierne. Dette paper undersøger gennem et studie af danske spisereglementer fra Alderdomshjem og statslige kostinitiativer og politikker udgivet i tiden 1892 til i dag, hvorfor og hvordan mad blev det centrale ældrepolitiske emne som det er i dag. Analysen viser, at madens formål ændrede sig fra at være vedligehold af forfaldne kroppe til at være kilden til mental og fysisk velvære og gode sociale relationer i løbet af det 20. århundrede og diskuterer hvilken betydning ernærings- og lægevidenskaberne og ikke mindst velfærdsstatsdynamikker har haft for den ændring. Dermed skriver oplægget sig ind i en aldrings- /velfærdshistorisk kontekst. Indenfor dette felt har der tidligere særligt været fokus på introduktionen og administrationen af finansielle velfærdsydelser til ældre ( Lynch 2006, Petersen 2010-14, Wingender 1994, Kolstrup 1996, Jørgensen 1967) samt i de senere år også på betydningen af sundhedsopfattelser for ældres liv og livsvilkår ( Jensen 2014, Jensen 2016, Kirk 1995).

ABSTRACT. The panel’s concern are not historical auxiliary forces and foreign units/soldiers within the Waffen-SS, but their veterans and legacy, respectively the role they play for memory culture and national narratives in different European countries. The reconstruction of Europe and the Soviet Union after World War Two depended, not least, on one central tenet: all peoples in occupied nations had united in fighting the Nazis. There had been very few traitors. During the 1980s, this story of united resistance was reinforced by mutual horror of the Holocaust. Political and economic collaborators were bad; but worse were those who fought side by side with the Waffen-SS, the cold-blooded murderers of thousands and thousands of civilians. These tenets still underpin hegemonic discourses. But they are increasingly challenged. In both East and West, nationalists are using the “legacy” of military collaboration, to strengthen an alternative narrative of World War Two. The enemy, they argue, had not been the Nazis. On the contrary: true patriots had joined the Nazis. They had fought, as heroic martyrs, against the real threat to Europe: the Communists, the Soviet Union, the non-Europeans. The panel’s hypothesis is that the veterans and their young sympathizers have been able to exploit changes in definitions of “Europe” and "Europeans" inherent first in the Cold War and after 1990 in EU expansion. They had long seen themselves as the first true pan-Europeans, the first to defend “European” values against Communism. In the 1990s, the Fall of the Wall seemed to confirm the veterans' revisionist interpretation of World War Two as - first and foremost - a trans-European struggle against Bolshevism. This approach, still unpopular in Western Europe, found and finds support in the post-Soviet East, where bitter memories of the Nazi occupation are often overlaid by bitter memories of occupation by the Soviet Union.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Steffen Werther (Södertörn University, Sweden): ‘SS Marches in Enemy Land’. Memory work of Scandinavian Waffen-SS Veterans after 1990
2. Andrej Kotljarchuk (Södertörn University, Sweden): ‘National Heroes’? ‘Fighters for Europe’? Belarusian Waffen-SS veterans and their legacy in the West and in the East
3. Oula Silvennoinen (Helsinki University, Finland): ‘For Fatherland’s Liberty’. Formation of Waffen-SS Memory Culture in Finland

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS

Steffen Werther (Södertörn University, Sweden): ‘SS Marches in Enemy Land’. Memory work of Scandinavian Waffen-SS Veterans after 1990

The subject of this paper is the memory work of Waffen-SS veterans and their next-generation sympathizers during the post war period, with a focus on the decades following the collapse of the Soviet Union. It concentrates on Norwegian and Danish veterans, but draws also on source material from Germany and other countries, as many veteran networks had a transnational dimension (which reflected the multinational composition of several Waffen-SS units). On the basis of concrete cases of memory work in Scandinavia itself, but also in Estonia, Hungary, Ukraine and Russia, the paper seeks to address three dimensions: 1) the SS veterans' so-called European Narrative narrative, which includes the idea of a voluntary pan-European army of idealists, who fought against communism, for their fatherlands - and for a free Europe.; 2) the establishment, legitimisation and public celebration of W-SS grave-sites and memorials , especially the question why and how Northern European SS veterans and their sympathizers sought to replace rituals of memory-work in the newly-opened East after 1990; and 3) the "handing over" of the W-SS torch to a younger generation of extremists and admirers. I will argue that these dimensions are interrelated; they overlap and support each other.

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Andrej Kotljarchuk (Södertörn University, Sweden): ‘National Heroes’? ‘Fighters for Europe’? Belarusian Waffen-SS veterans and their legacy in the West and in the East

One group of Eastern European Diasporas in the West that has been especially successful in passing on its symbolic capital during the Cold War and post-1991 are Waffen-SS veterans. The ambition of this paper is to bring light on the post-war memory work of Belarusian Waffen-SS veterans that have left an enduring legacy. After 1945 Belarusian military collaborators in exile established veteran associations and a monthly journal. They have written much-read books - both in Belarusian and English - that kept the cult of pro-Nazi martyrs alive. After 1991 their narratives, symbols and ideologies were adopted by right-wing politicians in Belarus. This paper analyses how the collaborators’ symbolic capital was memorialized, translated, codified, re-invented and ritualized in the Diaspora during the cold war and then reimported to today’s Belarus. It focuses on the attempts of veteran associations and their present-day young sympathizers to revise the history of WWII, presenting Waffen-SS combatants as the true panEuropeans, defending “European” civilization against Moscow. An additional focus is on the efforts to avoid the link between military collaboration in Belarus, the Holocaust and crimes against humanities.

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Oula Silvennoinen (Helsinki University, Finland): ‘For Fatherland’s Liberty’. Formation of Waffen-SS Memory Culture in Finland

This paper is about the development of memory culture around the former Waffen-SS volunteers and the SS-movement in post-war Finland. At its centrepoint has been an almost unchallenged adhesion to the “soldiers like everyone else”-line of interpretation. In Finland the storyline continues to enjoy acceptance in wide spheres of the public life, from academe to media and mainstream political actors, and is by no means relegated to the fringe groups of radical nationalism and neo-Nazism. How has such state of affairs come about? What has made this northeast-European parliamentary democracy so peculiar? In the paper I seek to present an outline of the conscious policy-making around the Finnish SSmovement (including not just the Waffen-SS volunteers themselves, but the wider circle of “German-friendly” backers essential to the recruitment and maintenance of the Finnish WaffenSS volunteer battalion). Immediately after the war, a number of war-time policy-makers embarked on missions to tell the nation what the war had been all about, thus also paving the way for how the Waffen-SS-episode would later be depicted. The most influential of them became the historian Mauno Jokipii, whose views still dominate the interpretations of the SS-movement. In this paper I will analyze these attempts at memory policy-making and look for the reasons they took the form they did.

ABSTRACT. I de senere år har stadig flere reformationsforskere valgt at tale om ”den lange reformation”, dvs. reformationen som en langstrakt proces, der var forberedt forud for de bevægede reformationsår i 1520’erne, og som på ingen måde var afsluttet med de store politiske og kirkelige nyordninger i 1530’erne. Men hvor længe er da ”den lange reformation”? Hvornår og hvordan fandt de største ”reformatoriske” forandringer sted? Og giver det mest mening at tale om en langstrakt reformationsproces med flere faser eller snarere om forskellige reformationer? Svarene på disse spørgsmål hænger sammen med, hvilket reformationsbegreb der anvendes, herunder hvordan forskerne forholder sig til nyere begrebs- og teoridannelse omkring bl.a. ”konfessionalisering” (Heinz Schilling) og ”konfessionskultur” (Thomas Kaufmann). Men svarene må også tage udgangspunkt i reformationsforløb, som vitterlig var yderst forskellige fra land til land, også i Norden. I denne session vil vi dels betragte udviklingen i fugleperspektiv og trække nogle af de helt lange linjer, dels standse op ved udvalgte reformatoriske eller reformationsrelaterede begivenheder og processer. Det vil give mulighed for at diskutere, hvilke begreber og kronologier der kan anvendes til at indfange udviklingen i Danmark, Norge og Sverige i 1500- og 1600-tallet, men også med spor op gennem 1700- og det tidlige 1800-tal. For måske skal ikke blot fænomener som filipisme og ortodoksi, men også 1700-tallets pietisme og 1800-tallets folkelige vækkelser forstås som sene faser eller nye bølger af protestantisk reformation?

OPLÆG:

1. Charlotte Appel (lektor, Aarhus Universitet): En langstrakt reformation – eller flere forskellige reformationer? Danmark ca. 1500-1850.
2. Annika Sandén (docent, Stockholms Universitet): Ärkebiskop Angermannus visitation och den senare svenska reformationen.
3. Kajsa Brilkman (post.doc., Lunds Universitet): En plädering för ”konfessionalisering” istället för ”den långa reformationen”.

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

1. Charlotte Appel, lektor, Aarhus Universitet: En langstrakt reformation – eller flere forskellige reformationer? 

Danmark ca. 1500-1850. En gang blev den danske reformation skildret som en konkret begivenhed, der fandt sted i oktober 1536. Siden blev reformationen i højere grad opfattet som en begivenhedsrække eller en særlig ”reformationstid”, der tog sin begyndelse omkring 1525, kulminerede i 1536 og klingede ud i årene frem mod 1560 med reformationskongens og flere ledende reformatorers død. Fra 1970’erne og frem begyndte et nyt og bredere reformationsbegreb at gøre sig gældende i international reformationsforskning. Reformationen blev set som en forandringsproces, der berørte hele samfundet, og som også kronologisk spændte vidt. En sådan tilgang kom også til at påvirke opfattelsen af den danske reformation. For var Kirkeordinansen fra 1537 ikke kun et program? Og var det ikke først i 1600-tallet, med bl.a. ortodoksiens katekismuskampagne og trolddomsprocesserne, eller måske ligefrem i 1700-tallet, med pietismens omfattende lovgivning og nye fromhedspraksisser, at dette program begyndte at blive omsat til virkelighed? Bør pietismen ligefrem ses som en ”anden reformation” – og 1800-tallets vækkelser som en tredje!? I dette paper vil jeg pege på en række signifikante begivenheder og processer i dansk historie ca. 1520-1850, der må betegnes som led i eller udløbere af den luthersk-protestantiske reformation og som udtryk for en løbende fortolkning, forvaltning og forandring af arven fra Luthers reformation. Et billede af forskellige faser i reformationens lange virkningshistorie i Danmark kan dermed skitseres. Begreberne ”konfessionalisering” og ”konfessionskultur” vil blive diskuteret ud fra det grundsynspunkt, at de er velegnede til at indfange visse processer og fænomener, men at de har en række indbyggede begrænsninger. Måske skal historikere acceptere, at reformationen og dens virkningshistorie aldrig vil kunne sættes på en enkel formel, og at begreber og kronologier må tilpasses skiftende temaer og tilgange?

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2. Annika Sandén, docent, Stockholms Universitet: Ärkebiskop Angermannus visitation och den senare svenska reformationen

På vårvintern år 1596 inledde den ortodoxe protestantiske ärkebiskopen Abraham Angermannus en längre visitationsresa. Han var utsänd av riksföreståndaren hertug Karl att på plats i rikets socknar upplysa om det rätta protestantiska handlandet, därtill att rannsaka och bestraffa de synder som människorna begått. Sverige var sedan decennier tillbaka ett härjat land. Krig, svält och fattigdom plågade folket. Enligt de lärde var det Guds straff för människornas leverne. Gamla invanda katolska sedvänjor och ceremonier måste bort en gång för alla. Genom straff som var lika hårda som synderna var grova antogs Guds vreda kunna mildras. Angermannus visitation skulle emellertid inte bli någon framgång. Folket upprördes av de hårda bestraffningarna och riksföreståndaren tog sin hand ifrån projektet. Med utgångspunkt från detta vill jag reflektera över visitationen som kulmen på det långa reformatoriska svenska 1500-talet, och som starten på en konfessionaliserings- och statsbildningsprocess.

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3. Kajsa Brilkman, post.doc., Lunds Universitet En plädering för ”konfessionalisering” istället för ”den långa reformationen”

Den svenska reformationen förstås gärna av historiker som ett exempel på en lång och långsam reformation. Jag kommer i mitt bidrag, i motsats till detta perspektiv, att argumentera utifrån att reformation och konfessionalisering ska ses som olika stadier i den tidigmoderna religiösa förändringsprocessen. Genom nedslag i andra hälften av 1500-talet i det svenska riket - med exempel från Johan III och konflikten på 1590-talet - vill jag visa att reformationen hade ett slut och konfessionaliseringen en början.
Konfessionalsering betyder här att konfessionskyrkorna utvecklade särskilda instrument för homogenisering inåt och avgränsning utåt. Detta kunde innebära en motor i den tidigmoderna statsbildningsprocessen, men kan också leda till konflikter som hindrade en sådan process. Jag kommer att argumentera för att det är i gränslandet mellan konfessionalisering som ett led i en ”lyckad” statsbildningsprocess och konfessionaliseringen som katalysator för konflikt och partikulära krafter som vi kan närma oss andra hälften av 1500-talet i det svenska riket. Därigenom kommer ”den långa reformationen” att försvinna som tolkningsram och konfessionaliseringen framstå som ett nytt sätt att förstå den tidigmoderna tiden i Sverige.

ABSTRACT. "Forskerfellesskapet «Lars Levi Laestadius Online» er et prosjekt innen digital humaniora som samler forskere fra Norge, Sverige, Finland og Russland. Prosjektet er flervitenskapelig og har til hensikt å forske på, synliggjøre og tilrettelegge digitalt for forskning på Læstadius og hans mange vitenskapelige tilnærminger til livet i det nordlige Norden, i tillegg til å fokusere på hans virksomhet som vekkelsespredikant. Sesjonene søker å vise Læstadius’ påvirkning gjennom historien, og er frittstående i forhold til hverandre. Hensikten med første sesjonen er å løfte frem noen av fagene som Læstadius skrev avhandling i og i den andre sesjonen ønsker vi å vise til den religiøse påvirkningen han har hatt på sine etterfølgere. Rolf Inge Larsen vil lede sesjon #2.

Sesjon #2: 

1. Professor Hannu Mustakallio: Reformerna i den finska stiftsförvaltningen och hotet från laestadianismen i nordkalotten under senare hälften av 1800-talet.
2. Stipendiat Lis-Mari Hjortfors: Laestadianismens betydelse för samernas liv, religiositet och identitet i lulesamiskt område.
3. Førsteamanuensis Roald E. Kristiansen:The Sacred Geography of Firstborn Laestadianism".

ABSTRACT. This panel will discuss the transitional phase of migration from the perspective of migrants from the Nordic countries to North America, China and Japan in the period from 1880 to 1941. We are interested in the gendered experiences of transition, its potentials and pains in the many betwixt-and-between-situations of migratory experience. Leaving the known behind and transforming the new and foreign into ‘home’ and belonging, could be challenging or easy, time consuming or quick, depending on context and circumstances. How do migrants from Sweden, Finland and Norway express transition, transformation and different stages of transition in letters, diaries and autobiographies? What role does religion play in the transitions and transformations? Does the process of transnational migration reflect the gendered nature of work and family? How does the migration shape individual understandings of home and belonging, national belonging included? How is it to return ‘home’ when the homeland has become a foreign place? The contributors will focus on different phases of migratory transition through particular biographical examples: three missionaries and one writer who played a central role in Norwegian-American popular religious publishing. See individual abstracts.

INDIVIDUAL PRESENTATIONS:

1. Malin Gregersen (University of Bergen, Norway):Transitory travels: Ellen and Gustaf Österlin’s journeys westward in 1920
2. Seija Jalagin (University of Oulu, Finland): «Never again shall I talk about home-sickness». Travel as transition and identity process in a Finnish missionary’s life and career 1903-1941
3. Inger Marie Okkenhaug (Volda University College, Norway): “The tearing asunder of tender ties”: A Norwegian migrant's experience of loss, transition and settling in the United States, 1887-1938
4. Karina Hestad Skeie (NLA University College, Bergen, Norway): When home is no longer where the heart is. A Challenging Repatriation

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Malin Gregersen (University of Bergen, Norway):Transitory travels: Ellen and Gustaf Österlin’s journeys westward in 1920

In 1920, the Swedish Österlin family planned for departure to China, where Gustaf Österlin (1885–1973) was to begin the Church of Sweden mission’s newly initiated work in China. On short notice, however, it was decided that his wife Ellen Österlin (1891–1976) and their two children had to stay behind since the youngest child was very ill. So Gustaf Österlin set out on his journey to China without his family. Between March and May, in the company of three other missionaries, he travelled via the United States to Shanghai. The same autumn, after the second child’s recovery and the birth of the third, the next journey was planned. Ellen Österlin, the children and a single woman missionary named Elfie Källberg, set out on the journey westward in December 1920. This paper discusses the transitory journeys of Gustaf and Ellen Österlin, using letters sent between the spouses and between daughter and mother during these two travels. They are letters of everyday experiences, of longing and loss, of worries and expectations – and of faith. Focusing on the transitory processes between departure and arrival, between staying and leaving, this paper addresses questions of spatiality, intimacy and gender with special reference to the work and home making of a missionary family.

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Seija Jalagin (University of Oulu, Finland): «Never again shall I talk about home-sickness». Travel as transition and identity process in a Finnish missionary’s life and career 1903-1941

Missionaries can be characterised as elite migrants, expats, who could always return to their sending country and whose livelihood was secured by financial flow from home, from the mission organisation. Yet, the 19th and early 20th -century missionaries often spent majority of their adult life in foreign countries. Thus their lives and records offer plenty of material for studying how travel as bodily, mental and spiritual transitions were turned into lived realities and verbalised. Teacher Siiri Uusitalo (1879-1945) made a long career in Japan as a missionary in five different decades. Her five working periods between 1903 and 1941 were interrupted by lengthy furloughs in Finland and several trips over sea and through Siberia. She recorded her feelings and thoughts of these partitions, travels and home-comings in her diary and letters. In particular, trips to and from the mission field could trigger identity crises. In this paper I will explore her ambivalent conceptions of home, significant relationships and also her way of coping with separations and respective identification processes.

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Inger Marie Okkenhaug (Volda University College, Norway): “The tearing asunder of tender ties”: A Norwegian migrant's experience of loss, transition and settling in the United States, 1887-1938

This paper will examine migration and the process of transition between leaving behind one´s homeland and settling in a new country, from the perspective of Nils N. Rønning (1870- 1962), who emigrated from Norway to the United States in 1887 as part of the pietist Haugian network. Haugians played a central role in Norwegian migration to North America and shortly after his arrival, Rønning was to attend the seminary of the Norwegian American Hauge´s Synod in Red Wing, Minnesota. He later studied at the University of Minnesota and had a lifelong career as publisher, journalist and writer of popular religious literature both in Norwegian and in English. It has been argued that for Haugians religious recognition was not linked to a certain language or national culture. Faith was the most important for the Norwegian pietists, who saw religious conviction as independent of language and culture.1 How important was faith for “creating a home” in North America as expressed in Nils N. Rønning´s writings? How is religion connected to the maintenance of kinship ties, gender norms, and emotional relations in the narratives of this immigrant writer?

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Karina Hestad Skeie (NLA University College, Bergen, Norway): When home is no longer where the heart is. A Challenging Repatriation

To study missionaries as a type of work-migrants, makes visible new and understudied aspects of missionary life and work. It also sheds new light on religion’s influence on workmigrations. Missionaries’ many experiences of transition is one such aspect, not least the missionaries’ lives after repatriation. Many left a challenging but meaningful job, and what they had come to experience as familiar and ‘home’, only to return as more or less strangers to a ‘homeland’ that offered limited work possibilities. Using letters, books and personal diaries, this paper will discuss the challenging process of repatriation for the Norwegian China-missionary Marie Monsen (1878-1962). When she returned to Norway in 1932, she was 54 years old and had worked 27 years in China. During her last years, she had become an internationally renowned revival preacher with a personal network stretching across many denominations and nationalities. How did Monsen experience the transition to Norway? What space and repertoire was available for expressing challenges and insecurities? Were there gendered differences in what work and networks were available for returning missionaries? In China, Monsen was intimately connected to a personal network of individuals that subsequently became central in anticommunist and fundamentalistic evangelical organizations in the US and in Europe. To what extent did Monsen reintegrate in her ‘old’ religious communities in Norway and to what extent did she find or create new? Did her transnational religious connections and networks from the mission-field continue to be of importance to an extent that she became a connector for religious revivals and change also in Norway?

ABSTRACT. In my paper I shall examine what are the quintessential features of Finnish greens that set them aside from other European green parties. Concern over pollution, societal inequalities and nuclear power brought especially young, urban and well-educated people together all over Europe. Finland was no exception in this regard and the ‘green reformation’ brought environmental issues into the political arena to stay. The party formation process was all but smooth which also resonated with European tendencies. Despite the difficulties, the Finnish greens managed to attain a relatively stable electoral base and the party has held on to its parliamentary representation ever since – and in recent polls raised its support to unforeseen heights. I shall argue that despite the fact that Finnish greens have a lot in common with their European counterparts they also differ from them in some ways. Finnish greens have always had a strong social conscience, but due to strong communist influence in Finnish political life during the cold war and especially in student life during the 1970s the Finnish greens, volitionally, never evolved into a clearly leftist party and have always aimed at staying above the left-right cleavage. In many studies Finnish greens are, in fact, portrayed as a centrist party while others in the same party family appear far more leftist. Besides this divisive feature,I shall argue that the lack of a worthy liberal party has had an effect on the formation and success of the Finnish green party. The greens have, in fact, a lot in common –even party chairman Ville Niinistö has stated this– with the inter-war social liberals. Although not a liberal party, the Finnish greens represent post-materialist, social liberal values, and it can be a bit provocatively asked if the greens are, in fact, the latest upholders of Finnish liberal tradition.

ABSTRACT. The desire and need for urban cooling are phenomenon attached to increasing urbanization, industrializing and changes in e.g. urban food provisioning, pronounced in many modern cities since the 19th century. This paper explores how and why the production, distribution and usage of coldness has changed in the Finnish capital, Helsinki, since the mid-19th century.

The commodification of coldness has materialized during the last one and a half centuries first through natural and "artificial" ice, which have been eventually replaced by technologically more complicated modes of production, namely mechanical refrigeration and centralized district cooling systems. These shifts are also reflected in the different uses of coldness. While the history of urban cooling traces back the transformation of energy flows into tradeable commodities, it also reveals how the material imprints of coldness as a commodified product has shaped the urban environment and urban practices. At the same time both non-human and human-induced changes in the natural environment, such as climatic variation and water pollution, have shaped the preconditions for the production of coldness, and eventually resulted in long-lasting shifts in the modes of producing and using of coldness as an amenity.

The perspective of mastering (low) temperatures and hence, overcoming constraints imposed by seasonality, adds a so far largely neglected feature to urban human-nature interactions that have been in the core of urban environmental history scholarship.

ABSTRACT. Temaet for historikermødet er reformer og reformationer forstået som bevidste forsøg på at forandre en tilstand. Store forandringer sker dog ofte langt mindre bevidst og synligt. Dette paper handler om forandringer i det 20. århundrede, som de afspejler sig i historien om en uprætentiøs hverdagsgenstand: æggebakken. Konkret vil jeg vise, hvordan æggebakkens historie inkluderer, materialiserer, afspejler og belyser historiske forandringer f.eks. mht. bosætningsmønstre, materialeudvikling, teknologi, indkøb, produktion, varedistribution, markedsføring og miljøbevidsthed, og hvordan vi kan blive klogere på disse forandringer ved at nærstudere æggebakkens historie. Da æggebakker nemt kan fremstilles af genbrugsmaterialer, materialiserer de f.eks. blandt meget andet en diskurs om affald og genbrug.

Æggebakker kan opfattes som ikke-ting (jf. Marc Augés ikke-steder), fordi de trods deres vigtige praktiske og markedsføringsmæssige funktion ligesom andre former for emballage som oftest er ”usynlige” og hurtigt havner som affald og dermed som en del af forbrugersamfundets fortrængte bagside. Samtidig er æggebakker ting, hvis funktion og identitet er multibel og til forhandling, jf. f.eks. konceptet ”eggyplay”, hvor tanken er at genbruge farvestrålende plastikæggebakker som legetøj.

Behovet for æggebakker opstod med urbaniseringen, der fjernede folk fra hønsene og adskilte produktion og forbrug og dermed skabte et distributionsteknisk behov. De første æggebakker blev opfundet i 1800-tallet, og i 1930’erne var der for alvor kommet gang i både patenter og produktion. Med tiden blev æggebakkerne i højere grad ikke blot praktiske redskaber, men også markedsføringsmæssige.

Min historie om æggebakken er bl.a. inspireret af den materielle vending, og både humane og nonhumane aktører som opfindere, patenter, støbepap og virksomheden Brødrene Hartmann, verdens største æggebakkeleverandør, indgår i historien om æggebakkens materialisering, ligesom det analyseres, hvilke materialiseringsprocesser æggebakken indgår i. Går der f.eks. en rød tråd fra æggebakken til det støbepap, der beskyttede din mobiltelefon i æsken, og som er en forudsætning for, at den kan købes over internettet?

ABSTRACT. During the last years, especially after Thomas Piketty’s influential book “Le Capital au XXIe siècle”, research on economic inequality has become more popular compared to e.g. in the 1990s. The distribution of income and wealth has been a widely discussed and controversial topic in economic history (see e.g. Karl Marx, Eduard Bernstein, Simon Kuznets, Jeffrey Williamson, Peter Linder & al.). There are important differences between income and wealth inequality dynamics. The concentration of wealth has always been much stronger than income concentration. There is very little available information on personal distribution of income prior the late 19th century. In the medieval times and in early modern times (before industrialization), the Nordic countries were on the poor edges of Europe, but the region is now the world’s tenth strongest economy. Therefore it is worth asking, how did the Nordic economy become so strong? And which role the regional and personal differences played in the economic development in Scandinavia (here in Sweden and Finland) from the 16th century to the eve of the WWI. The proposed session would concentrate on economic inequality on both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia in the long run. The session would include three different papers written by scholars in Jyväskylä and Lund.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Kerstin Enflo & Ilka Nummela: Market potentials in the Kingdom of Sweden 1571 and 1800, a key to understanding different regional economic development during the early modern times?
2. Mikko Hiljanen, Ilkka Nummela & Miikka Voutilainen: Top wealth holders in Finland 1571 and 1800.
3. Erik Bengtsson, Anna Missiaia, Mats Olsson & Ilkka Nummela: Inequality in the long run, Finland and Sweden 1750–1900.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

1. KERSTIN ENFLO & ILKKA NUMMELA: Market potentials in the Kingdom of Sweden 1571 and 1800, a key to understanding different regional economic development during the early modern times?

In many countries, economic activities are concentrated to a few cities or regions. But what determines the growth of a strong economy? And what makes a strong economy a lasting one? Some researchers regard geographic location as being the most important factor. In this paper we will present estimates for market potentials for the different parts of Sweden proper and Finland in the late 16th and in the beginning of the 19th century, based on information on population and personal wealth. Thanks to detailed information about local economic conditions collected by a wealth tax on all individuals in 1571 (Älvsborgs ransom) and 1800 it is possible to
assess regional levels of wealth by direct estimation and evaluate income levels indirectly. We will utilize in this paper models developed in physics and using total number of inhabitants and total wealth as measures of the mass in the common gravitational potential energy model. The distances in the models will be calculated with modern geographical coordinates.

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2. MIKKO HILJANEN, ILKKA NUMMELA & MIIKKA VOUTILAINEN: Top wealth holders in Finland 1571 and 1800.

There are more estimates on wealth inequality in Thomas Piketty’s famous book from 21th century than from the 16th century because there are not very many researchers who are interested in the early modern wealth distributions. Guido Alfani’s work on economic inequality in north-western Italy from the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries is one of the few exceptions. It is possible to estimate early modern wealth distributions from Scandinavia. Thanks to a wealth tax (Älvsborgs ransom) on all individuals in 1571 (Älvsborgs ransom) and 1800 it is possible to assess regional distribution of wealth in almost every parish and town in the Swedish realm. The remained tax lists have been drawn up according to the same principles with some documented exceptions. In this paper the share of top 10 per cent and top 1 per cent of the wealth holders of the total wealth is analysed in every parish, town and county. The results from Finland are compared to some Swedish parishes and towns and to the Thomas Piketty’s inequality data from other countries and to the earlier wealth inequality estimates from Scandinavia by Lee Soltow and Ilkka Nummela (based on Gini coefficients).

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3. MATS OLSON, PATRIK SVENSSON & ILKKA NUMMELA: Inequality in the long run, Finland and Sweden 1750–1900

Probate inventories dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries have been utilized by a growing number of scholars on economic growth and economic inequality. Data has now been collected and processed in larger volumes than at the time of previous generations of scholars. In this paper we are analysing wealth inequality in Sweden and Finland using probate inventories simultaneously and in the same manner. The Swedish data is collected in 2014–2015 and the Finnish one in 1985–1989. The data from Sweden consists of information of 5 000 probate inventories, around 1 200 for each year: 1750, 1800, 1850 and 1900. The sample is a random sample of Sweden stratified by urban/rural and region. The Finnish data is collected from selected urban/rural regions and it includes data from 40 000 probate inventories. In an earlier paper on the wealth distributions in Sweden, Mats Olsson, Patrik Svensson & al. have found that Sweden was as unequal as other western European countries in the early twentieth century but more equal before and after this period. The estimated Gini coefficients for the personal distribution of wealth in Sweden were 0.75 (1750), 0.79 (1800), 0.83 (1850) and 0.90 (1900). The results from Sweden are in concordance with the earlier research by Ilkka Nummela on economic inequality in Finland.

ABSTRACT. Lärare har länge varit medvetna om den roll som specifika skolämnen spelar i nationsbyggande – i synnerhet finns uppfattningen att det nationella medvetandet formas i historieklassrummet. Historien är politisk till sin natur och speglas oftast i nationella kontexter av nationella protagonister. Historia som skolämne är ett omdebatterat område i offentligheten; en arena för kamp om det kollektiva minnet och om kulturell literacy. En nations historia är öppen för tolkning och många nationer har under den senaste tiden omprövat sin historieskrivning. Rivaliserande berättelser har framträtt och det förflutna har utsatts för konkurrerande tolkningar och även revisionistiska sådana. Erkännandet av ”mot-minnen” från inhemska, etniska och nationella minoriteter, och ibland regionala grannar, har hejdat obestridligheten i nationsbyggande projekt. Debatter som rör ”Den nationella berättelsen” har ofta lett till offentliga gräl om hur historia, och vilken historia, som det bör undervisas om i skolan. I vissa nationalstater har dessa debatter blivit så intensiva att de har beskrivits som "historiekrig". Problemet med konkurrerande berättelser är ett återkommande ämne i publikationer om historieundervisning. Man har där kartlagt historiekrigslandskapet och ett gemensamt drag i nästan alla dessa publikationer är att det finns ett antagande om en enda berättelse: "Vems historia undervisas det om och vilka historier lämnas utanför?", tycks vara de vanligaste frågorna. En debatt om hur lärare kan eller bör närma sig dessa disparata historieframställningar är dock sällsynt. Framväxten av nya berättelser och perspektiv har ifrågasatt berättelsen om det nationsbyggande projektet och historie- eller kulturkrigen som ofta sprungit ur denna nya situation är väl utforskade i många olika sammanhang. Men det finns inte så mycket skrivet om hur historielärare kan närma sig den problematik som dessa krig står för. Denna panel-session kommer att behandla denna fråga både i en nordisk och i en europeisk kontext, genom att presentera delar av en antologi, som är under publicering.

OPLÆG:

1. Henrik Åström Elmersjö & Monika Vinterek: Att undervisa disparata historier. 
2. Sirkka Ahonen: Kanon som historiepolitik
3. Thomas Nygren, Monika Vinterek & Robert Thorp: Att främja en ”historiografisk blick” genom multiperspektivitet i historieundervisningen.
4. Arja Virta: Att överbrygga historieundervisning och mångfalden av historiekulturer.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Att undervisa disparata historier
Henrik Åström Elmersjö, Monika Vinterek

Denna presentation kommer att introducera konceptualiserandet av kunskapsteoretiskt baserade metoder för undervisning i historia, som kan användas i undervisning av disparata berättelser på en generell nivå. Att diskutera kunskapsteoretiska ståndpunkter i samband med det förflutna och i berättelser om det förflutna, samt hur de samverkar, kan vara användbart vid jämförelser mellan olika kulturer och den kamp om undervisningen i historia som ofta finns i samhällen med inbyggda kulturella konflikter; där historien inte ses som sammanhängande och svårligen kan peka ut en gemensam nationell väg. Genom att koppla historielärares konceptuella idéer om historia till de kunskapsteoretiska genrepositioner som föreslagits av Jenkins och Munslow (rekonstructionistiskt, konstruktionistiskt och dekonstruktionistiskt), är det möjligt att identifiera skillnaderna mellan olika kulturell kontexter och vad lärarna tampas med när man undervisar i till exempel nationell historia i ett multinationellt samhälle, eller vid värderingen och användbarheten av olika historiekulturer i undervisning i historieklassrummet.

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Kanon som historiepolitik
Sirkka Ahonen

Den så kallade döden för de stora berättelserna är en illusion i ljuset av de senaste försöken från politiska ledare, särskilt i östra och centrala Europa, att återuppliva berättelsen om nationalstaten. Risken som historiepolitik utgör för historieundervisningens integritet utgör grunden för denna presentation som introducerar analyser av kunskapsteoretiska och etiska brister i de stora berättelserna. Historisk kunskap har en multiperspektivistisk karaktär och det finns en etisk skyldighet att behandla historiens människor rättvist. Presentationen bygger på exempel på historielärare som försvarar professionella normer för sin profession och argumenterar för dialog som den mest passande diskursiva formen i historieundervisning, särskilt gällande disparata historiska berättelser, och deliberativt samspel som den mest lämpade formen av klassrumsinteraktion.

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Att överbrygga historieundervisning och mångfalden av historiekulturer
Arja Virta

Mångfalden av historiekulturer som elever möter utanför skolan, är relaterad till både kollektivt minne och flera former av historisk underhållning. Förhållandet mellan historiekulturer och historieundervisning är långt ifrån enkel. Detta beror på att historiekulturer inte är enhet-liga, och det är oklart i vilken utsträckning vilken historiekultur och vilka delar av den som har betydelse för enskilda elever och som påverkar en betydande del av deras identitet. Dessutom kan historieundervisning ses som en del av ett samhälles historiekultur. Minoritetsung-domar sympatiserar inte nödvändigtvis med den traditionella historiekulturen i majoritetssamhället, men de kanske inte heller ser sig som delar av sina familjers eller etniska gemenskapers historiekultur. Denna presentation behandlar de utmaningar historielärare kan uppleva i sina klassrum när du försöker uppmärksamma olika historiekulturer. De broar mellan historieundervisning och de informella delarna av olika historiekulturer lyfts fram som viktiga om historieundervisning förväntas vara meningsfull för eleverna. Den viktigaste slutsatsen av denna diskussion är behovet av utbildning i historisk literacitet för att ge studenterna möjlighet att bemästra de olika versioner och former, i vilka de möter historisk information eller desinformation.

ABSTRACT. How can we understand the rise of an educationalized world and how has the OECD promoted education as a means to achieve social and economic prosperity across the globe? The world of today is an educationalized world. It means that societal challenges are to be solved by education. In fact, every challenge facing contemporary society – e.g. social cohesion, economic growth, and sustainability – has an unmistakable educational component. For decades, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has promoted a global vision of education as one of providing human capital to deal with social challenges and improve the economies of nation-states. Beginning as the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC) in 1948, the OECD gradually took the leading role in shaping a global education space from other international organisations culminating with the launch of the programme for international student assessment (PISA) in 2000. Today the OECD is widely recognised as the global trend-setter in education – and promoter of an educationalized world - because of its educational measurement indicators, its production of norms, and its role in governance by comparison (e.g. PISA). The OECD’s educational recommendations and programmes carry an enormous global impact because 1) they frame and shape the public discourse and the ways decision-makers think about and deal with social and economic challenges; 2) they affect educational access, performance and benefits of different people groups; and 3) they impact the conditions under which education may be realized in different national contexts.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Christian Ydesen (Aalborg University): Presenting a research project: The Global History of the OECD in Education.
2. Trine Juul Reder (Aalborg University): The impact of OECD’s initiatives and programmes on Educational Policies and Practice.
3. Christian Ydesen & Karen Andreasen (Aalborg University): The Reformation of the Global Education Space after 1945 – The Rise of School Accountability and Educational Performance Testing.

ABSTRACT. Historical research on cartels and competition policy is experiencing a revival. There is an increasing awareness that the development both in the regulation of anti-competitive behavior and in the collaboration within individual cartels have followed quite diverse paths. Thus, current research questions simplified perceptions often presented in literature. One such common misperception is, for example, that the global convergence towards strongly non-tolerant (anti-trust) legislation is a result of a straightforward “Americanization” process. Countries have followed different paths. Also the form of collaboration occurring within cartels has varied extensively and changed over time. This diversity is to a large extent a result of the economic, institutional and historical context. Alas, to receive a better understanding of both cartel behavior and competition regulation a historical approach is to be taken. In this session, the focus of attention will be on international cartel agreements, with a special focus on cooperation between producers in the Nordic countries. Collaboration over the boarders occurred on a multitude of levels and both formal and informal cooperation could occur simultaneously. The three individual papers will look at the rationale and motivations behind such agreements, the various dimensions of the collaboration and, finally, how the collaboration developed over time as a result of transformations in the economic and regulative environment. The time period will be from the 1930s to the early 1990s, when the common European competition policies made the Nordic countries adopt on-tolerant competition legislations. However, already earlier international agreements were dissolved as international trade agreements and the Nordic countries’ participation in various free trade arrangements (Efta, EEC) made restrictive business practices and cartels which negatively affected free trade within the area unlawful. This led to the dissolving of several Nordic cartels.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Malin Dahlström (University of Gothenburg): Nordic cartels in cement industry.
2. Patrik Ekheimer (Chalmers university of Technology): Nordic Home Market Protection Agreements – Normal State or Reconciliation Strategy?
3. Birgit Karlsson (University of Gothenburg): Cartel stability. The example of Scankraft 1932-1972.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Malin Dahlström (University of Gothenburg): Nordic cartels in cement industry

During the 20th century several cooperation’s between Nordic companies were initiated. Various forms of collusion and cartels were part of such cooperation between companies national and international. The cooperation often started as mutual deals to respect each other’s home markets. One of the industries that quickly became international was the cement industry and the first cartel agreements over the boarders were made already in the 19th century. Over time the cooperation was strengthen and often the Nordic cement producers introduced a deeper cooperation. The Nordic cement producers were to a great extent the driving forces also for the European cement cartels set up in the 1920s and the 1940s. The cement cartel Cembureau was established after World War II and even if the Nordic countries had a small part of the total European Cement production the headquarter was placed in Sweden. During the 1960s and 1970s there was a clear tendency towards more concentration on many markets and many companies moved out to the international market. Many industries became dominated by a few big companies, and those companies also cooperated with their competitors in the other Nordic countries. The cement industry was the base for big corporations active in the construction sector and the building material industry, many of them had a long integration chain. From the 1970s and onwards the corporations started to make common investments. The invested in foreigner cement plants, but they also set up joint production companies of building material. In this paper I will investigate what kind of Nordic cooperation took place on the cement market and what effect did the cement cartels have on a) the cement market broadly and b) on the national cartels and their behaviour? The paper will be based on material from the national companies’ archive and from Cembureau.

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Patrik Ekheimer (Chalmers university of Technology): Nordic Home Market Protection Agreements – Normal State or Reconciliation Strategy?

During the years 1918–1973 mutual home market protection agreements were common, for example in the Nordic forest industry. According to such agreements, each country abandoned or restricted the export of particular goods to each other’s country. These agreements are the focus of attention here and have been analysed through archival studies of individual companies, trade associations and the competition authorities. Within the export-intensive sectors, the export went primarily to non-Nordic countries. In those cases, the Nordic home market protection agreements had no apparent impact. However, agreements on home market protection were in several cases signed for goods that were domestic-market oriented and for goods that were exposed to import competition. Although the Nordic home market protection agreements infringed with the EFTA competition rules, many of them remained in force into the 1970s. Several new agreements were also signed during the late 1960s. When the 1973 free trade agreements between the EFTA states and European Communities entered into force, the Nordic home market protection agreements were officially abolished. The study shows that there were gentlemen's agreements on home market protection between the Swedish, Norwegian and Finnish companies until the end of the 1980s. In the business world home market protection was seen as a normal state. Meanwhile, infringements that resulted in conflicts were common. These were often dissolved by renewed or formalised home market protections agreements. In the domestic markets the result of the agreements was eliminated or reduced import competition. At the same time the agreements were seen as a precondition for broader Nordic export collaborations. The study shows that relatively minor offenses against the home market protection agreements could result in collapsing both domestic cartel collaborations and international export cartels.

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Birgit Karlsson (University of Gothenburg): Cartel stability. The example of Scankraft 1932-1972

Steel industry and forest industry are the two areas where cartels have been most common according to the official investigation in 1968. There are plenty of reasons for this, related to economies of scale, transport costs, access to raw material etc. There are also many factors that traditionally have been seen as negative towards cartelization, for example access to international market as well as international competition. Theoretically the reasons for cartel stability have been analyzed as depending upon the cartels’ ability to solve three problems; coordination, cheating and entry. In this paper forest industry cartels are discussed from that perspective.
The Scan cartels are all related to forest industry. They were established mainly during the Inter-war period. It was considered as one way of dealing with the by then overwhelming problem of price fluctuations. During the second world war the German attempts to organize common cartels under German leadership led to increased cooperation between the Scandinavian partners. The so called Scan-cartels turned out to be relatively stable, and it was not until the 1970s free-trade agreement with the EU that their existence was threatened. This article analyses the development from the perspective of one of the cartels – Scankraft – which organized producers of kraft paper. Can the cartel’s stability be explained in terms of ability to solve the problems of cooperation, cheating and entry? An effort is also made to analyze the process under which the dismantling of the cartel took place.

ABSTRACT. Keynote Address, 29^th Nordic Conference of Historians, Aalborg

The classic modernist shorthand, in both history and politics, for transformative change is “revolution”: revolution as event, revolution as process, revolution as unfolding sequence. Yet the modern script of revolution was a palimpsest, written over two earlier scripts of fundamental and multidimensional change—the scripts of reformation and civil war. Theorists of both revolution and counter-revolution, among them Burke, Hegel and Marx, saw religious reformation (in particular, the Protestant Reformation) as the closest historical analogy for the sweeping transformation they hoped, or feared, might arise from revolutionary action. Many of those same theorists also discerned a more intimate relationship between revolution and civil war than modern prejudices—which find revolution progressive, fertile and forward-looking but civil war regressive, destructive and atavistic—would allow. Since the Enlightenment, civil war, reformation and revolution have also been linked genetically, with an age of revolutions presented as the cure for an age of religious civil wars sparked by the Reformation. This lecture will trace the genealogy of reformation, revolution and civil war in order to show what light the history of these concepts, and of their connections with one other, can shed on some of our most intractable present discontents.