ABSTRACT. Det sene 1800-tallets draktreformbevegelse søkte å bedre kvinners livskvalitet, helse og stilling i samfunnet ved å erstatte kvinners moteklær med en mer hensiktsmessig og rasjonell klesdrakt, uten korsett og høye hæler.

Gjennom 1880-og 90-tallet var kvinnerollen under debatt, og kvinner som søkte å entre nye arenaer ble ofte møtt med biologisk funderte motforestillinger. Kvinners dårlige helse ble brukt som argument mot kvinners tilgang til både utdanning og arbeidsliv. Draktreformbevegelsen søkte å bøte på dette ved å introdusere praktiske og komfortable hverdagsklær som skulle erstatte det de så på som en unaturlig og restriktiv kvinnedrakt. Bevegelsen argumenterte for at kvinnekroppen i sin natur var like sunn som mannskroppen, og mente at moten, ikke biologien, gjorde kvinners kropper sjukelige og dårlig egna til arbeid.

Klær former kroppen både fysisk og sosialt. Vil man forstå kvinnebevegelsen på 1800-tallet må man også skrive om drakt og kroppsidealer. Likevel er temaet nærmest fraværende i historiske framstillinger av det sene 1800-tallets kvinnesaksbevegelse.

Gjennom å analysere draktreformbevegelsens retorikk og argumentasjon, spesielt rundt begrepene sunnhet og kvinnelighet har jeg studert hvordan forholdet mellom kvinnehelse, kvinneklær, skjønnhet og modernitet ble konstituert og forhandla i den skriftlige offentligheten på 1880 og 90-tallet.

Med utgangspunkt i begreper som sunnhet og naturlighet kritiserte draktreformbevegelsen tidas medisinske og kulturelle forståelse av kvinners helse og skjønnhet. Dette handler om reform av mote og klesdrakt i sin mest konkrete og praktiske betydning, men også om en reform av smak og kroppsideal. I enda videre forstand var draktreformbevegelsen med på å omdefinere kvinnerollen, både når det gjaldt klesdrakt, estetikk og posisjon i samfunnet.

ABSTRACT. Katti Anker Møller er kjent i Norge som mødrenes forkjemper, og blir gjerne kalt for moderskapsfeminist. Hennes virkeperiode var de første 30 år av 1900-tallet. Hun selv betraktet sitt arbeid for reformer mht abort, prevensjon, fødselsomsorg etc. som en naturlig følge av det medborgerskap kvinnene hadde tilkjempet seg gjennom stemmeretten i 1913. Men mange av hennes medsøstre i kvinnebevegelsen var skeptiske til hennes seksualpolitiske radikalitet. Mitt paper vil ta opp de paradokser, konflikter og allianser reformatorer som Katti Anker Møller sto i på det seksualpolitiske feltet i denne viktige formative perioden i velferdsstatens historie. Fru Møller var unik i sin evne til å skaffe gjennomslag for velferdsreformer for svake grupper av mødre, samtidig som hun brøt en rekke grenser og tabuer som deler av kvinnebevegelsen og samfunnet for øvrig hadde vanskelig for å være med på. Evnen til å samarbeide med filantroper, vitenskapsfolk etc viser et mangfold av politiske kanaler og en ildsjels evne til å manøvrere i dem. Hennes arbeidsfelt sto sentralt i tidlige velferdsreformer og la føringer for senere vektlegging innen familiepolitikken. Moderskapet plasserer seg midt i skjæringspunktet mellom offentlig og privat. Reformer på dette feltet virvlet opp så vel gamle fordommer og kjønnsforestillinger som forholdet mellom klasse og kjønn. Vitenskapens inntog på kjønnsfeltet ga ny ammunisjon i et gammelt sosialt reformtema. Med Katti Anker Møller som omdreiningspunkt vil jeg i mitt paper tilnærme meg de seksualpolitiske reformer og reformforsøk i perioden før 2.verdenskrig. Stikkord: Seksualpolitikk, reformatorer, velferdsstat, feminisme

ABSTRACT. Tolfternas samkväm för kvinnor från olika yrkesområden var namnet på en förening som Amalia Fahlstedt och Ellen Key bildade i Stockholm 1892. Verksamhetens mål var dels att ge kvinnor ur arbetarklassen möjlighet till folkbildning, dels att genom samtalsgrupper arbeta med att utjämna skillnaderna mellan den borgerliga kvinnorörelsen och den socialistiska. Till dessa möten bjöds sedan särskilt utvalda arbeterskor in vilket skulle ge dem en inblick i de borgerliga kvinnornas sfär samtidigt som ett socialt utbyte över klassgränserna möjliggjordes. I följande artikel behandlas Tolfternas arbete för att stärka kvinnors medvetande och intresse för politiska frågor före rösträttsreformen utifrån huvudfrågan: Vilken betydelse hade mötenas innehåll och klassupplösande strävan för arbetet mot fullständigt medborgarskap och rösträtt? I artikeln problematiseras även innebörden av de borgerliga kvinnornas tolkningsföreträde och hur det kom att påverka hur det emancipatoriska projektet utformades.

ABSTRACT. Med denne session vil vi gerne sætte fokus på de metodiske udfordringer, vi bliver stillet overfor, når vi som forskere vil undersøge, hvordan mennesker bruger fortid og skaber historie i deres hverdagspraksis. I gennem en årrække har studier af historiebrug typisk taget udgangspunkt i produkter og udsagn, som er blevet til i professionssammenhænge. Det har fx været i form af analyser af spillefilm og dokumentarfilm, af museumsudstillinger, historiske romaner, politiske taler og officielle iscenesatte jubilæer m.v. Tilgangene har typisk hentet sine metoder i klassiske humanistiske fag som fx litteraturvidenskab, filmvidenskab og retorik, og perspektivet har typisk været fra oven eller udefra. Der har også blevet udført receptionsanalyser af, hvordan modtagerne af disse produkter har opfattet og brugt dem. Vi har samlet set haft at gøre med en tradition, der er blevet betegnet som ’udvidet historiografi’.

Men i de seneste år er der indenfor forskningen i fortidsbrug opstået en interesse i at studere, hvordan mennesker – i det det man kan kalde for en lægmandspraksis (modsat professionspraksis) – selv bruger fortid og skaber historie. Det kan fx være som slægtsforskere, som reenactere, som amatørarkæologer med metaldetektorer eller i sammenhænge, hvor det handler om at skabe fællesskaber fx i en fodboldsklub, eller som led i personlig udvikling eller i terapiforløb. At have mennesker som sit studieobjekt kræver noget mere og andet af forskeren, end når ’tekster’ er genstandsfeltet. Fire unge forskerstuderende fra Danmark og Sverige vil med udgangspunkt i deres forskellige forskningsprojekter sætte fokus på og problematisere de metodiske og etiske udfordringer, som er forbundet med studier af fortidsbrug i et subjektperspektiv. Bennedahl og Brædder forholder sig til de udfordringer der er ved at involvere egen krop i studiet af kropslige praksisser, mens Ekelund og Grønbæk Jensen forholder sig til materialiteters betydning, når mennesker anvender fortid og skaber historie.

PRÆSENTATIONER

1. Marie Bennedahl (Linnéuniversitetet, Sverige): Att studera kunskapskonstruktion genom den egna kroppen 
2. Anne Brædder (Aarhus Universitet, Danmark): At studere kropslige historiebrugspraksisser med kroppen
3. Robin Ekelund (Malmö högskola, Sverige): Att göra historia tillsammans med ting 
4. Stine Grønbek Jensen (Syddansk Universitet/Danmarks Forsorgsmuseum (Svendborg Museum), Danmark): Museet som rum for bearbejdning af traumatiske minder

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Marie Bennedahl: Att studera kunskapskonstruktion genom den egna kroppen

Min forskning syftar till att genom en autoetnografisk metod ge en djupgående förståelse för hur interaktionen mellan individen och gemenskapen i en kulturell kontext kan resultera i en konstruktion av kunskap om det förflutna. Genom att själv vara en del av den gemenskap jag undersöker använder jag mina egna upplevelser och tankar som en reflexiv del i forskningen. Den förelagda gemenskapen är en svensk reenactment-förening som återskapar det amerikanska inbördeskriget, samt en vidare gemenskap av främst danska deltagare vid större evenemang. Hobbyn är mansdominerad och kopplad till en traditionell machomaskulinitet. I det världsvida återskapandet av amerikanska inbördeskriget finns en pågående debatt om kvinnors deltagande, främst i aktiva mansroller. Debatten har dock inte fått samma genomslagskraft i de nordiska länderna och alla medlemmar som deltar aktivt i återskapandet av historiska slag förväntas bära maskulint kodade kläder. Reenactment handlar om att uppleva historien genom den egna kroppen och autoetnografin verkar för att riva de murar som finns mellan forskare och studieobjekt. Min egen upplevelse blir en ingång till djupare förståelse och en närmare interaktion med övriga deltagare. Genom observationer och intervjuer, samt en ständig reflexiv ansats i relation till min egen upplevelse och den kulturella kontexten resulterar min forskning i ett mångsidigt och inkluderande material. Ett inifrånperspektiv ger en insyn i de roller och normer som bygger upp gruppens gemensamma förståelse och i förlängningen konstruktionen av kunskap om genus. Perspektivet lyfter också fram forskarens relation till andra människor i den undersökta gemenskapen. Forskaren är inte neutral, men genom en autoetnografisk metod används detta som ett verktyg. Om individen ses som en förlängning av gemenskapen blir forskarens egen upplevelse en lins genom vilken man kan se på och förstå en social kultur.

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Anne Brædder: At studere kropslige historiebrugspraksisser med kroppen

Aktørers kropslige simulation af fortid i kombination med brugen af forskellige materialiteter er en velkendt måde at gengive fortider på. Det er fx en udbredt formidlingsform på frilandsmuseer, og i selvorganiserede reenactmentgrupper levendegøres forskellige fortider. Hvis man skal undersøge, hvordan denne levendegørelsespraksis opleves fra et brugerperspektiv for at blive klogere på, hvordan fortid tilvejebringes kropsligt og opleves som en meningsfuld omgang med fortid, hvilken metoder skal man så anvende? Kræver det, at man som forsker selv lægger krop til så at sige? Og hvilke muligheder er der egentlig for at lægge krop til som forsker? Paperet vil inddrage egne metodeovervejelser og empiri indsamlet i det danske 2. verdenskrigsreenactmentmiljø. Reenactment er ofte blevet undersøgt inden for det antropologiske felt. I et ønske om at søge ”ind i verden” er deltagende observation i henhold til Raymond Golds typiske feltroller i spændingsfeltet mellem deltager og observatør blevet anvendt som indsamlingsstrategi. Paperet vil undersøge forholdet mellem krop og metode med udgangspunkt i børneforskeren Ida Winthers begreb ”feltkrop”. Winther peger på, at hendes krop er en feltkrop, men at den aldrig kan deltage i det børneliv, hun udforsker. Paperet vil rette fokus mod på hvilke andre måder forskerens krop kan være et indsamlingsredskab, når man laver etnografisk feltarbejde end en måde selv at prøve tingene på. Interviews med informanterne er oplagt, men også forskerkroppens sanser spiller en central rolle, når man fx lytter, mærker og dufter sig frem, selvom man ikke efterligner informanternes praksis og prøver det, man undersøger, på egen krop. Kroppens metodiske sanseapparat er oplagt at kombinere med det spirende felt affektiv metode. Jeg vil se på, hvordan min egen krop sansede, når jeg var på feltarbejde blandt 2. verdenskrigsreenactere, og hvordan sansningerne medførte affektive reaktioner hos mig, når jeg fx hørte reenacterne marchere, så dem udklædt i tyske nazi-uniformer osv. Desuden vil jeg diskutere mulighederne for at bruge disse affektive reaktioner analytisk.

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Robin Ekelund: Att göra historia tillsammans med ting

Hur spelar ting och materialitet roll för individers och gruppers relationer till det förflutna? Hur iscensätts historia, i betydelsen minnen av och föreställningar om det förflutna, tillsammans med ting? Och hur kan vi som historiker studera dessa förbindelser? I paperet diskuteras dessa frågor med utgångspunkt i min doktorsavhandling i historia. I denna använder jag en etnografisk ansats för att studera görande av föreställd gemenskap inom dagens modscen i Sverige. Teoretiskt utgår jag från en performativ teori inspirerad av Bruno Latour där ting ses som aktörer. Modskultur förknippas främst med 1960-tal, koreadufflar och brittisk popmusik. Sedan 60- talet har dock stilen och kulturen genomgått ett antal revivals vilket medfört att det också idag finns individer och grupper i Sverige – allt från tonåringar till sextioåringar, både män och kvinnor – som identifierar sig som mods. Deras anspråk på att vara mods bygger på retrospektiva blickar gentemot modskulturens ursprung och historia samt att de kan artikulera och iscensätta förbindelser mellan sig själva och denna historia. I detta görande blir ting/materialiteter av central betydelse. I paperet fördjupar jag mig i två sammanhängande aspekter kring iscensättande av historia och materialitet, en metodologisk och en analytisk. För det första diskuterar jag hur ting och materialiteter kan studeras genom ett etnografiskt tillvägagångssätt. Kan ting inkluderas i genomförandet av intervjuer? Hur kan observationer utföras för att förstå tingens roll i olika sammanhang? Och hur påverkas forskarens ”blick” om denne intresserar sig för och eftersträvar att dokumentera ”det materiella”? Härmed ämnar jag diskutera såväl metodologiska möjligheter som problem. För det andra diskuteras analytiska poänger som kommit ur mitt tillvägagångssätt. Detta för att ge perspektiv på hur aktörer som söker förbindelser med det förflutna ibland kan ha ett mycket komplext och motsägelsefullt förhållande till ting och materialiteter.

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Stine Grønbæk Jensen: Museet som rum for bearbejdning af traumatiske minder

For de mennesker, der blev anbragt på børnehjem i efterkrigsårene og årtierne frem, er fortiden sjældent et afsluttet kapitel i deres liv. Mange føler, at deres fortid bliver ved med at hjemsøge dem, som uhyggelige indre billeder, som adfærdsmønstre, der ikke længere er hensigtsmæssige for dem selv, eller som årsag til at de lever et liv på samfundets skyggeside. Mit ph.d. projekt handler om, hvordan tidligere anbragte erindrer deres opvækst, hvordan de tillægger deres minder mening, lever med dem og håndterer dem i dagligdagen i forskellige sociale og kulturelle rum. Et af de rum, jeg undersøger, er museet, og helt specifikt den permanente børnehjemsudstilling på Danmarks Forsorgsmuseum i Svendborg. Jeg er interesseret i hvilke minder udstillingen vækker og hvordan repræsentationen af børnehjem og børnehjemsbørn opleves af mennesker, der selv har en andel i historien. Jeg er også interesseret i hvilke emancipatoriske potentialer museet rummer og i de etiske og erindringspolitiske udfordringer, der er forbundet hermed. Som en metode til at undersøge dette afholder vi ”Mindemandage”. Her inviterer vi en lille gruppe tidligere børnehjemsbørn ind på museet og opfordrer dem til at fortælle deres historie gennem øvelser, der tager udgangspunkt i museets fysiske rammer, genstande og fotografier. Inspireret af blandt andet Roland Barthes teorier om den subjektive oplevelse af fotografiet og om forholdet mellem fotografi og erindring, vil jeg i mit paper diskutere, hvilke nye indsigter metoden har givet os om tidligere anbragtes erindringsdannelse og historiebrug og hvilke begrænsninger og etiske udfordringer metoden har.

ABSTRACT. Luther not only changed the perception of the relation between the church and the state through his teaching on the two regimes. He also developed a social teaching through the doctrine of the three estates. According to this the social order in the secular regime was maintained through relationships between rulers and subordinates within the three estates: the civil government, the church and the household. All community members were member of all three estates and their positions within them – as ruler or subordinate – defined their duties and shaped their social identity. In all three estates the relation between rulers and subordinates was founded in the fourth commandment "Thou shalt honor thy father and thy mother" and Luther's interpretation of what obligations it entailed. In this session we will focus on the household and explore possible ways in which the ideology of Luther influenced the early modern society through legislation and through acceptance and use of the Lutheran ideas by people in different positions. At the same time, we will address the confessional, social and cultural differences between the different Nordic countries and discuss to what extent the expressions and the impact of the household ideals and practices varied in the Danish-Norwegian and the Swedish-Finnish realms.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Karin Hassan Jansson (Uppsala University, Sweden) & Jonas Lindström (Uppsala University, Sweden): Masters and Maids and the Everyday Making of Patriarchy
2. Hanne Østhus (Sogn og Fjordane University College, Norway): Master and Servant …. & Luther
3. Nina Koefoed (Aarhus University, Denmark): Social-emotional obligations within the Lutheran household

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Masters and Maids and the Everyday Making of Patriarchy
Ass. Prof. Karin Hassan Jansson & PhD Jonas Lindström, Uppsala University

Early modern society was a patriarchal society. Kings were fathers of countries, pastors were fathers of their congregations and husbands in their households. The Almighty Father – God – legitimized the patriarchal order and, in Scandinavia, Martin Luther was its interpreter and preacher. The patriarchal order was preached in churches, permeated laws and was integrated in work and everyday life. Historians have demonstrated the influence of Luther’s patriarchal ideas in many different contexts. They are seen in general demographical patterns, as well as in laws, religious teaching and popular culture. They are visible in everyday practice, too: in people’s actions and statements. However, if we study everyday life we also find numerous examples of phenomena, actions and statements that seem at odds with Luther’s teachings and the patriarchal order.

Our paper takes some examples of such seeming anomalies as the starting point for a discussion of the practice of patriarchy in seventeenth century Sweden: how it should be understood and how it was created, maintained and changed.

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Master and Servant …. & Luther
Associate Professor Hanne Østhus, Sogn og Fjordane University College

Martin Luther’s teachings on order in the household included several pairs of superiors and subordinates: husband and wife, parent and child, and master and servant. This paper explores the last of these pairings by examining the implementation of Luther’s ideas on the master-servant relationship in the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth century Denmark-Norway. We will see how Luther’s ideas were interpreted in some of the explanations of Luther’s catechism that were published during that century, but also look at the relationship between norms and ‘lived reality’ as it played out in the household and in the court room. Several masters and servants chose to take their conflicts to court, and such cases reveal how masters and servants did not always agree on what subordination or authority implied in practice. The act of suing ones master or servant can also be interpreted as an indication that God alone could not enforce order in the household; the master needed the state as well but it is also argued that the courts were willing to interfere in household affairs in order to ensure that abused and unpaid servants were compensated. Lastly, the paper investigates how notions of authority and particularly its administration changed during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

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Social-emotional obligations within the Lutheran household
Associate Professor Nina Javette Koefoed, Aarhus University

Luther’s small catechism and its table of duties was a central part of establishing a confessional culture in Denmark during the 17th and 18th century. In the table of duties Luther explained the responsibilities between members of the household as an elaboration of the fourth commandment as a reciprocal duty. These obligations were of a social as well as emotional character. This paper will investigate how this Lutheran understanding of the socio-emotional obligations within the household influenced the Danish society in the centuries following the reformation: on a normative level through legislation and on a practical level through prison- and court records. The paper will argue that the fourth commandment formed new legislation on the responsibilities of both master / parent and servant / child during the 17th century, culminating in Danish Code in 1683. It will further explore the 18th century household as a possible arena for tracing an influence from Lutheranism on everyday culture and the perceptions of duties and social responsibilities among common people. An argument will be the emphasis placed in court cases on the establishing and maintenance of a Christian household and the content of this.

ABSTRACT. Kva for breiare samfunnsendringar inngjekk reformasjonsprosessen i nord i? Kva for faktorar sette sitt preg på utviklinga av kyrkeorganisasjonen, institusjonar og presteskap og relasjonane mellom folkegrupper og statar i nord? Kva slags regionale dimensjonar til reformasjonen i Danmark-Noreg og Sverige-Finland kan me sjå på Nordkalotten?

Sesjonen tar utgangspunkt i forskingsprosjeketet "The Protracted Reformation in Northern Norway"(https://uit.no/prosjekter/prosjekt?p_document_id=317402) ved UiT. Det overordna siktemålet med prosjektet er å vinne ny innsikt i forløpet og verknadene av dei meir langsiktige endringsprosessane som vart utløyst av reformasjonen på Nordkalotten – frå seinmiddelalderen og fram til midten av 1700-talet.

Alle paneldeltakarane er med i "The Protracted Reformation in Northern Norway" og vil i denne sesjonen presentere utvalde tematikkar frå forskingsprosjektet:

1. Sigrun Høgetveit Berg: Nordnorsk utakt? Om dei katolske kannikgjelda sin skjebne gjennom reformasjonshundreåret.
2. Ingebjørg Aamlid Dalen: Små kastrerte haner, horejegere og drankere: Presteskapet i Den Norske So.
3. Siv Rasmussen: Den forsinkete reformasjonen i Sápmi

INDIVIDUAL PRESENTATIONS

Nordnorsk utakt? Om dei katolske kannikgjelda sin skjebne gjennom reformasjonshundreåret.
Sigrun Høgetveit Berg 

Eit kannikgjeld var i mellomalderen eit prestegjeld som ein kannik ved domkapitlet sat som formell sokneprest til. Han fekk inntektene frå prestegjeldet, men hadde samstundes ansvaret for drifta, ikkje minst i form av løn til vikarprestane som var plasserte der. I Nord-Noreg var det særleg mange og inntektsbringande slike kannikgjeld, noko som gjorde at kannikane ved domkapitlet i Nidaros hadde sterke interesser og nære relasjonar til store område nordover langs kysten. I Trondheim stift (dvs tidlegare Nidaros katolske erkebispedøme) overlevde denne katolske organisasjonsforma den statlege overtakinga av kyrkja under innføringa av reformasjonen i 1536–37. Dette gjorde stiftet spesielt i norsk og europeisk samanheng og er eit særmerke ved nordnorsk reformasjonshistorie. Paperet vil drøfte i kva grad vidareføringa av desse kannikgjelda gjennom reformasjonshundreåret var med å forsinke eller påskunde reformasjonsframdrifta i nord.

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Små kastrerte haner, horejegere og drankere: Presteskapet i Den Norske So 

Ingebjørg Aamlid Dalen 

På begynnelsen av 1580-tallet skrev en mann som angivelig hadde undervist i Bergen i flere år, dokumentet Die Nordtsche Saw. Skrivet var polemisk og et skandskrift, hvor spesielt de 2 verdslige makthaverne fikk unngjelde. Korrupsjon blant dem ble spesielt kritisert og i Den Norske So er personer, posisjoner og roller i samfunnet omtalt i koder fra dyreriket. Geistligheten slapp heller ikke unna den giftige pennen, selv om de ikke er hovedmålet for kritikken. Prestene ble blant annet omtalt som blant annet kastrerte haner, og mange skal ha hatt en forkjærlighet for alkohol som hindret dem i å utføre deres plikter. I tillegg beskrives de som, uvise, horejegere og bondeplagere. I dette paperet ønsker jeg å undersøke hvorvidt slike eller lignende påstander finnes om prestene i Nord-Norge i andre samtidige kilder. Det ser ut som at flere av prestene hverken levde helt opp til myndighetenes- eller befolkningens forventninger.

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Den forsinkete reformasjonen i Sápmi 

Siv Rasmussen 

Innlegget vil fokusere på samers religiøse praksis på 1600-1700-tallet i de nordlige delene av Norge og Sverige-Finland. Offisielt var de fleste samer innlemmet i enten den dansk-norske eller den svenske kirka, men kilder fra denne tiden tyder på at den lutherske lære ikke hadde vunnet innpass i særlig grad. Samer i begge regioner hadde mottatt impulser fra den romerskkatolske kirka i middelalderen, noe som gjenspeiler seg i skikker knyttet til faste, helligdager og bruk av helgennavn. I etter-reformatorisk tid ser man at den samiske religionen fortsatt levde, både som en tradisjonell religion, der særlig noaidens rolle var sentral, og som en integrert del av den lokale formen for kristendom og kirkeliv. En komparasjon mellom områder som hørte inn under henholdsvis den dansk-norske kirka og den svenske kirka, viser visse forskjeller mellom regionene, men også en rekke likhetstrekk. I begge regioner var omdøping av småbarn en mye brukt skikk med røtter i samisk religion. Samer ga også offergaver i kirkene, som kan tolkes som en måte å flytte ofringene fra siediene – de hellige offerplassene – inn i kirka. Denne tradisjonen stod sterkest i de samiske områdene i SverigeFinland, mens samene i Norge la stor vekt på å overholde de katolske fasteskikkene. Dette kan tolkes som at man på norsk side i større grad hadde inkorporert den katolske troen i sin virkelighetsforståelse, mens samene på svensk-finsk side hadde beholdt flere sider av den samiske religionen.

ABSTRACT. Consumer co-operatives are a specific form of retail enterprise, characterised by user-ownership, by being – in principle – democratically controlled, and by distributing dividends based on the owners’ use of the enterprise rather than their capital holdings. Within the Nordic region, such enterprises have thrived remarkably well during the twentieth century, especially within the food retail industry. This development pattern contrasts sharply with the experiences in most other western European countries. Here, while co-operatives held firm positions in the retail market by 1950, the majority of co-operative enterprises experienced a steady decline during the post war years, and in some countries the consumer co-operatives even experienced a full collapse.

The relative success of Nordic consumer co-ops have led some to assume that fundamental characteristics of “the Nordic model” favour the co-operative organisational form and thereby have given room for a distinct Nordic version of the consumer co-operative to evolve. Others have questioned this notion, highlighting instead the differences in how the various Nordic consumer co-ops have handled fundamental challenges. This session explores further the historical development of the Nordic consumer co-ops during the twentieth century. The papers will focus on similarities and differences between the various Nordic consumer co-ops and how they have handled competition from other retailers. We will also investigate various attempts for cooperation between the different Nordic consumer co-ops, how such cooperation has affected their development but also underscored fundamental differences in culture, management styles and organisational structure.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Mary Hilson (Aarhus University, Denmark): Nordic co-operative trade: Nordisk Andelsforbund 1918-1939
2. Anitra Komulainen (University of Helsinki, Finland): The magic of commercial co-operation: The market leadership of Finnish Consumer co-ops at the first half of the 20th century
3. Fredrik Sandgren (Uppsala University, Sweden): Introducing co-operative consumer credit: the case of loanpurchases and the Swedish consumer co-operative movement in 1945 
4. Kristoffer Jensen (Danish Museum of Industry, Denmark) & Espen Ekberg (BI, Norwegian Business School, Norway): Coop Norden – a large-scale merger that fell apart

INDIVIDUAL PRESENTATIONS

Nordic co-operative trade: Nordisk Andelsforbund 1918-1939 
Mary Hilson, Aarhus University 

Co-operation has a well-established role in national historical narratives in all the Nordic countries. The transnational dimensions of the movement, by contrast, are sometimes overlooked. This includes not only the importance of the exchange and transfer of ideas and models in the development of cooperative societies, but also how co-operation developed in response to and was shaped by trends in international trade in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Recent studies have pointed out that the First World War did not bring an abrupt end to the globalization of the late nineteenth century, but it did serve to highlight the importance of global markets for the supply of essential goods – especially food – to consumers in northern Europe. At the same time, Danish agricultural cooperatives were facing increased global competition for their exports of processed food such as butter, especially in the important British markets. These trends will be explored through an examination of Nordisk Andelsforbund (NAF), founded in 1918 by the Scandinavian co-operative wholesale societies (Finland and Iceland joined later) as a jointpurchasing agency. By 1924 NAF was well-established with offices in London and Copenhagen and had become a significant buyer of commodities such as coffee, dried fruit and edible oils. Focusing on the first two decades of NAF’s existence, the paper explores the balance of idealism and pragmatism which shaped it: what were its aims? How did it operate? What can it tell us about Nordic co-operation and inter-Nordic relations in the interwar period? What attempts – if any – were there to market the goods traded in terms of their co-operative meanings? In relation to this point, some attention will also be given to further initiatives arising out of this collaboration, notably the manufacture of “Luma” lightbulbs from the late 1920s.

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The magic of commercial co-operation: The market leadership of Finnish Consumer co-ops at the first half of the 20th century
Anitra Komulainen, MA, PhD Student, University of Helsinki 

The consumer co-ops succeeded extremely well in the Finnish retail market during the first half of the 20th century. By the 1950’s co-ops had a market share of roughly 50% of total retail business. How and why did the co-ops reach their powerful position? And how did their business solutions alter the business practices of other Finnish retailers? This paper seeks to answers these broad questions using the archives of the Finnish consumer co-ops and their main competitors. By doing so, it seeks to contribute to recent cooperative studies and business longevity research (in other words, why did some companies survive, but other collapsed). The first-mentioned studies have underlined that neither managerial centralization, the amount of capital, traditions nor the filling of a market gap can alone explain the successes of co-ops. The lastmentioned studies have focused on the success and failure factors, and four main explanations were found: environmental and organizational factors, entrepreneur’s personal characteristics and family business succession process. However, there have not been enough studies that focus on both success and failure factors, and combine them with environmental and organizational factors.

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Introducing co-operative consumer credit: the case of loan-purchases and the Swedish consumer co-operative movement in 1945
Fredrik Sandgren, Department of Economic History, Uppsala University, Sweden 

The Swedish co-operative movement argued since its inception in the mid-19th century against consumer credits and for cash trading. Credits were considered to be in conflict with the co-operative ideals. Into the 20th century economic modernization and gradually increased real incomes for many Swedish consumers meant an increased demand for capital goods such as furniture, radios, vacuum cleaners and refrigerators. The Swedish Co-Operative Union (Kooperativa Förbundet) and some major regional consumer co-operatives expanded the co-operative production to include these kinds of goods in order to capture a piece of what was seen as an attractive market. A prerequisite for selling these products was nevertheless reasonable financing. Pure consumer credit or installment payments where still considered to go against the co-operative ideology and adopted practice. The answer was instead the introduction of loan-purchases (låneköp) where the Co-Operative Union arranged fair deals for its members with commercial banks. The introduction was not met with general approval once suggested at the 1945 annual meeting, though. The aim of this paper is to discuss the process leading up to the introduction of loan-purchases in 1945 and the debate that this decision led to. This narrow aim will be put into context by discussing the more general conflict within the Swedish co-operative movement between ideology and practice or between business and social considerations. The sources for this study will be internal documents from the Swedish co-operative union as well as journal articles and other publications were both the more narrow aspect of loan-purchases and the broader conflict between credit and cash is discussed. The focus will be on the period c. 1940-1950.

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Coop Norden – a large-scale merger that fell apart
Kristoffer Jensen, Danish Museum of Industry and Espen Ekberg, BI, Norwegian Business School 

In 2002 the business activities of the Danish, Norwegian and Swedish consumer co-operatives were merged to form the limited liability company Coop Norden. The national cooperative associations FDB, Coop NKL and KF continued to exist and held in combination all shares in the new company. The establishment of Coop Norden was a giant step for the Scandinavian co-operators, but it was also important in a general business perspective. Coop Norden became in 2002 part of the top-ten companies in Scandinavia according to size controlling 3.000 shops, employing 64.000 people and having a share of the Scandinavian market for daily consumer goods approaching 30%. The merger was in every aspect a grand initiative taken by the cooperatives, but it also soon proved to be a failing one. Coop Norden was not viable, and the merger was dissolved in 2007. In the proposed paper we intend to follow the discussions leading up to the merger comparing the internal arguments used be the cooperative leaders in Denmark and Norway and to analyse the reasons for the merger later to fall apart. Coop Norden must be seen as a co-operative response to globalisation, but we will argue that the merger on top of that by the co-operative leaders in the Scandinavian countries was seen as a means to solve old national conflicts. When the new company came into being it proved impossible to bridge the different agendas of the Scandinavian co-operators. The failing initiative connects to a wider discussion on the cultural differences between the Scandinavian countries. The paper will draw on the extensive previous research Espen Ekberg and Kristoffer Jensen have done on the Danish and Norwegian consumer co-operatives using internal archival material.

ABSTRACT. Sesjonen ønsker å sette søkelys på de historiske forutsetningene for ytringsfrihetens og offentlighetenes fremvekst i Norden etter 1815. Det skal gjøres ved å se på de historiske, rettslige og politiske vilkårene for utviklingen av en friere offentlighet i de nordiske landene ‒ gjennom den formative fasen på begynnelsen av 1800-tallet til en gradvis bredere offentlighet rundt århundreskiftet. Hvordan og når slo ytringsfrihet gjennom i Norden og hvordan har ytringsfrihetens grenser blitt definert gjennom skiftende tider og regimer? Hvilke begrensninger og utfordringer har utviklingen av en friere offentlighet møtt i de nordiske landene? Og i hvilken grad kan vi snakke om fremveksten av en felles skandinavisk offentlighet på 1800-tallet?

Dette er temaer som innbyr til både komparative og relasjonelle, transnasjonale studier, og ikke minst til å se utviklingen i Norden i et større internasjonalt perspektiv. Ytringsfrihet og offentlighet ble for alvor satt på dagsorden i alle de nordiske landene i etterkant av omrokkeringen av Norden under Napoleonskrigene, og spilte en stor rolle for den konstitusjonelle og politiske utviklingen i Norden gjennom 1800-tallet. Men det har vært – og er på mange måter fortsatt – betydelige forskjeller mellom de nordiske landene med hensyn til ytringsfrihet, ytringskultur og offentlighet. På den andre siden var det en betydelig, men i liten grad systematisk undersøkt, interaksjon ‒ de nordiske landene fungerte som både forbilder og motbilder for hverandre.

Sesjonen presenterer pågående forskning fra det nordiske, tverrfaglige forskningsprosjektet Offentlighet og ytringsfrihet i Norden, 1815‒1900, basert ved Universitetet i Oslo, og en del av UiO:Norden-satsingen. Historikere og rettshistorikere fra Norge, Danmark og Finland deltar i sesjonen, som ledes av Jes Fabricius Møller. http://www.uio.no/forskning/satsinger/norden/forskning/forskergrupper/offentlighet-og-ytringsfrihet-i-norden-1815-1900/

OPLÆG:

1. Lars Björne: Ytringsfrihet i Norden 1815-1914.
2. Ruth Hemstad: Skandinavisk offentlighet mellom amalgamisme og skandinavisme.
3. Odd Arvid Storsveen: Pressens rolle for innføringen av parlamentarisme i Norden

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Lars Björne: Ytringsfrihet i Norden 1815-1914 

Även i Norden kan man inte upprätthålla den svartvita bilden «yttrandefrihet ‒ icke yttrandefrihet och censur»: en närmare granskning visar en bild med olika nyanser, både på lagstiftningens och rättsvetenskapens nivå samt i rättspraxis. Trots en grundlagsstadgad tryckfrihet kunde man i praktiken skrida till långtgående inskränkningar genom en sträng, politiskt påverkad rättspraxis, och även genom speciallagstiftning (s.k. «munkorgslagar»), som öppet riktade sig mot politiska motståndare, främst på vänsterkanten. I länder med strikt reglering eller fullständig avsaknad av tryckfriheten kunde en slapphänt censur eller ett negligerande av stadgandena leda till en långtgående tolererad yttrandefrihet, som dock vilade på en mycket osäker grund. Alla de tre nordiska grundlagarna från förra delen av 1800-talet, Regeringsformen 1809, Eidsvollgrunnloven 1814 och Junigrundloven 1849, stadgade uttryckligen om tryckfrihet, medan däremot någon allmän yttrandefrihet inte ens nämndes. Det till det ryska riket sedan år 1809 hörande autonoma storfurstendömet Finland är ett undantag: ingen erkänd grundlag, nästan ingen rättsvetenskaplig litteratur eller ens rättspraxis, då tryckfrihetsöverträdelser beivrades på administrativ väg. Revolutionsåret 1848 påverkade tryckfriheten överallt i Europa, men ofta i negativ riktning, då de olika frihetsrörelserna snabbt slogs ner. Vid sidan av Frankrike var Danmark det enda land, där revolutionsårets oroligheter ledde till bestående resultat, och Junigrundloven 1849 garanterade tryckfriheten. Revolutionsvågen påverkade inte de övriga nordiska länderna, med undantag av att de oroade myndigheterna skärpte sin inställning till tryck- och yttrandefriheten. I Sverige försökte Oscar I ännu så sent som på 1853‒54 års riksdag få 1812 års Tryckfrihetsförordning, som hade grundlagsstatus, degraderad till en vanlig lag för att lättare kunna ändra den. Under senare delen av 1800-talet var, åter med undantag av Finland, tryckfriheten som sådan inte hotad i de nordiska länderna, men däremot inskränktes den ofta för att motarbeta den framväxande arbetarrörelsen.

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Ruth Hemstad: Skandinavisk offentlighet mellom amalgamisme og skandinavisme 

I dette paperet vil jeg se nærmere på ansatsene til en felles skandinavisk offentlighet i tiårene etter 1814, fra forsøkene på å styrke den norsk-svenske unionen og motstanden dette medførte, til den skandinavistiske bevegelsens offensive bruk av ulike offentlige arenaer og virkemidler. Perioden kjennetegnes av spenninger innad i den nye norsk-svenske unionen, særlig på 1820- og 30-tallet, med norsk frykt for svenske forsøk på å styrke unionen. ‘Amalgamisme’ ble brukt som advarende begrep fra norsk side helt fra 1813/1814. Fra svensk side var det flere forsøk på å skape en skandinavisk, norsk-svensk identitet, i tråd med Carl Johans propaganda som gikk i denne retning fra 1812 av, samtidig med svensk markering overfor unionspartneren. Det var en stadig spenning mellom samlende og splittende krefter, både innen unionen, mellom Norge og dets tidligere unionsland, Danmark, og på et norsk-dansksvensk, skandinavisk nivå. Fra 1830‒40-tallet var det en økende interesse for felles-skandinaviske tiltak av ulikt slag, ikke minst som en respons på europeisk politikk og maktforhold. Den skandinavistiske bevegelsen fra 1840-tallet utnyttet både det offentlige rom og den skriftlige offentligheten offensivt og på en måte som fortjener og påkaller en mer systematisk undersøkelse av dette fenomenet. Forsøket på å skape en skandinavisk offentlighet ble møtt med ulike reaksjoner, til dels sanksjoner, og også klare antipatier – ikke minst fra norsk side, og ble fulgt med interesse og til dels vaktsomhet, fra internasjonalt hold.

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Odd Arvid Storsveen: Pressens rolle for innføringen av parlamentarisme i Norden

Målet er å undersøke den politiske pressens rolle som demokratisk opinionsdanner i forbindelse med diskusjonene om å innføre et parlamentarisk styre i Norge og Norden mellom ca. 1880 og 1910. Til en viss grad var slike diskusjoner inspirert av det politiske systemet i land som Storbritannia og Frankrike, men det er samtidig uklart hvilken rolle internasjonale forbilder her spilte i forhold til de nordiske lands egne, interne politiske problemer. Forholdet mellom internasjonal inspirasjon og hjemlig politisk tradisjon er derfor ett av feltene som skal undersøkes nærmere. De mest sentrale kildene er da aviser som kan oppfattes som liberale, venstrepolitiske eller reformorienterte: I Norge f.eks. Verdens Gang og Dagbladet (Kristiania), Varden (Skien), Bergens Tidende, Vestlandsposten (Stavanger), Dagsposten (Trondheim), Indherreds-Posten (Steinkjer) og Tromsø Stiftstidende, og i Danmark og Sverige sentrale presseorganer med en tilsvarende profil (som Politiken og Aftonbladet). Videre vil det være aktuelt med en komparasjon med noen viktige, konservative aviser i perioden (i Norge f.eks. Morgenbladet og Ørebladet).

ABSTRACT. Abstract: Både i Norge og i flere europeiske land er det sjøfartsmuseene som har hatt hovedansvaret for å dokumentere den materielle maritime kulturarven, særlig handelsflåtens historie. Sjøfartsmuseer ble etablert som en egen genre i det norske museumslandskapet på begynnelsen av 1900-tallet, og inspirasjonen kom fra tilsvarende museer som allerede var etablert i Europa. Aktørene var ofte sentrale personer i skipperforeninger og innen shippingnæringen. Museumssamlingene som da ble etablert ble preget av skipperens, ingeniørens og rederens perspektiv på historien. Beretninger om skipskonstruksjon, teknologisk framgang og nasjonalt herredømme på havet stod sentralt i museenes historieframstilling. Sjøfolkenes historie stod ikke sentralt museenes samlingsbygging. Til tross for dette finnes likevel gjenstander, fotografier og arkivalia mm knyttet til sjøfolkenes liv og arbeid i de maritime museenes samlinger, men ofte skjult og underkommunisert i museenes historiefortellinger. I denne analysen undersøker jeg maritime flere museumsamlinger knyttet til sjøfolkene i Norge, Nederland og Belgia utfra et historiebruksperspektiv. Hvordan har denne yrkesgruppen blitt dokumentert i sjøfartsmuseenes samlinger? Ble samlingskulturen preget av museale agendaer og nasjonale stereotypier? Hvilket bilde av fortiden er det museene projiserer inn i vår samtid gjennom det innsamlete materialet, og hvordan kan museumsfortellingene reformeres når samlingene synligjøres og aktualiseres? Analysen er en del av et pågående PhD-arbeid knyttet til Museum Stavanger og Universitetet i Agder.

ABSTRACT. In 1908–09 maritime commerce, fishing and traffic in the Sulu Archipelago in the Southern Philippines came almost to a stand-still due to a surge in piracy and coastal raids that challenged U.S. colonial rule in the area. The pirate leader was a renegade subject of the Sultan of Sulu, a Samal named Jikiri. Together with his followers he was responsible for the murder of at least forty people in numerous raids throughout the Archipelago. In spite of the concerted efforts of the U.S. Army, the Philippine Constabulary and private bounty hunters, Jikiri was able to avoid defeat for more than one and half years, before he was eventually killed in July 1909. His decision to take to piracy was triggered by the failure of the U.S. authorities to pay compensation for the loss of the traditional claims that many families in the Sulu Archipelago had to the pearl beds of the region, as stipulated by a law on pearl fishing adopted in 1904. The law was in several respects disadvantegeous to the native population of Sulu and combined with the high-handed behavior of the local officers in charge of the Sulu District from 1906 to fuel widespread discontent with colonial rule and led several of the leading headmen of Sulu covertly to sympathize with and protect Jikiri and his followers. This sponsorship combined with the general reluctance of the population to cooperate with the U.S. military explains why Jikiri was able to defy the vastly superior U.S. forces for so long. American officers at the time tended to explain the depredations by the allegedly piratical nature of the Sulus, but the article argues that the so-called decay theory, first proposed by Raffles a century earlier, is more appropriate in order to explain the surge in piracy.

ABSTRACT. Även om Vänern är Nordens (och EU:s) största sjö, har den inte i nämnvärd grad intresserat historiker. I min presentation skall jag därför diskutera moment som samverkar i en historia om Vänern under 1900-talet. Historien om sjöar och floder är historien om hur natur och samhälliga faktorer tillsammans förändrar vattenlandskap. I miljöhistorisk forskning finns flera begrepp som beskriver en sådan natur; second natures, enviro-technical landscapes, organic machines eller hybrid natures. Vänerns historia är i denna miljöhistoriska förståelse, en historia om hybrid natur. Historia om strömmande vatten har naturligtvis moment som är universella, men varje individuellt vattensystem är också unikt. Det specifika i en sjös historia är sammansmältningen, över tid, av vattensystemets hydrologiska förhållanden och de samhälleliga faktorer som påverkat floder och sjöar. Närmar man sig Vänerns historia är det, i ett vattenhistoriskt perspektiv, väsentligt att diskutera hur maktförhållanden skapas av upp- och nedströms intressen i vattensystemet. En viktig premiss för att skriva Vänerns historia är därför att placerar sjön i sitt avrinningsområde, där Norge kontrollerar upprinningsområdet och där utloppet befinner sig i Sveriges näst största stad, Göteborg. Under Vänerns 1900-talshistoria kan formativa perioder identifieras, där innehållet i det hybrida förändras. Kort sagt så har konflikterna handlat om på vilka vattennivåer – centimeter för centimeter – man skall hålla denna stora vattenyta. I ett maktperspektiv kan förändrade konstellationer av aktörer identifireras. Ett annat moment är de förändrade risk-scenarier som sjön definieras utifrån, som har varit en viktig faktor för hur denna sjös vatten-nivåer skall förvaltas. I ett miljöhistoriskt perspektiv har, som nämnts, också naturen i sig en roll i den historiska analysen. Därför kan inte Vänern och dess stora vattenmassa utelämnas som premiss-givare i en historieskrivning om Vänern.

ABSTRACT. The breaking out of shoals of fish is a pivotal topic in the history of fisheries, because its impact contributed to changes in policies, as well as economic changes. The appearance of herring in Bohuslän in the latter half of the eighteenth century had a major impact on the economics of fisheries in Sweden and Northern Europe. By the late seventeenth century, the promotion of herring fisheries had become an important issue in Sweden in relation to mercantile policies. For this reason, the Swedish government introduced new regulations to govern the fishing. After the Great Northern War (1700-1721), the government promulgated a number of laws and privileges on fisheries. Meanwhile, the promotion of whale fisheries was by the government seen as important as that of herring fisheries because of the valuable fish oil. According to previous research on Swedish fisheries policy, it is clear that major changes in measures and policies relating to herring fisheries had a significant impact. However, research has yet to elucidate fully the development and transformation that has changed the face of whale fisheries. Through examining and discussing the enforcement of policies on whale fisheries, this study elucidates how whale fisheries progressed in the eighteenth century and what influenced policies on whale fisheries following the appearance of shoals of herring.

ABSTRACT. The rich fishing grounds in the North Atlantic were the driving force of commerce in the medieval and modern period. Their exploitation by foreign merchants such as the English, the Hansards, the Dutch and the Danes from the late medieval period onwards had much impact on the people in the North. Trading systems were repeatedly reformed, faith and believe changed perspective, and the presence of foreign merchants and sailors had a profound impact on insular cultures. These cultural interactions and the changes that these brought about for the North Atlantic societies are the topic of this session. As a consequence of the foreign presence trade was more and more regulated by the Danish crown. From 1602 onwards the trade with Northern Norway, the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland, was subject to a Danish Monopoly. It lasted until 1787 in Iceland and Northern Norway, until 1855 in the Faroe Islands and until 1955 in Greenland.

In this session we intend to explore these changes from different points of view and from different disciplines (history, archaeology). We will focus on two changing periods in time. First, the changes brought about in the late 16th and early 17th century, when Hansards and Danes struggled for control over trade. In this phase, more and more foreign traders went North and interacted with local societies but the monopoly imposed by the Danish crown meant yet again a reformation. Second, in the 18th century, while the Danes participated in global markets they no longer intended to keep the monopoly. After a period of one royal company in the 1780’s dealing with the whole North Atlantic region, the monopoly on Iceland and Northern Norway was lifted in 1787. The end of the monopoly brought about yet another series of change.

PRESENTATIONS: 

First half:

Chair and introduction: Hrefna Róbertsdóttir

1. Pétur Kristjánsson (The National Archives of Norway): "The Royal Company in Vestmannaeyjar and foreign trade in Iceland in the second half of the 16th Century."
2. Natascha Mehler (Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum): "The cultural and religous impact of the Hansards in Iceland and Faroe"

Second half:

Chair and summary (at the end): Natascha Mehler

1. Bart Holterman (Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum): "Sudden reformation or gradual process? Cooperation between merchants from different countries around the introduction of the Danish trade monopoly in Iceland (1601)."
2. Hrefna Róbertsdóttir (National Archives of Iceland): "Monopoly or free trade, attitudes and integration in the 18th century North Atlantic.

Keywords: North Atlantic, trade, cultural contact, early modern period

Organizers: Hrefna Róbertsdóttir, historian in Iceland, and Natascha Mehler historical archaeologist in Germany

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Pétur Kristjánsson, Norway

Senior advisor, The National Archives of Norway

The Royal Company in Vestmannaeyjar and foreign trade in Iceland in the second half of the 16th Century

Increasing influence of the state authorities is a prominent theme in Icelandic history in the second half of the 16th Century. A period that is characterized as an ending era of the ventures of German and English merchants and an introduction to the domain of the Danish Trade monopole in 17th and 18th Century. The transition seems first to have occurred in the Crown domain of the islands of Vestmannaeyjar, where the Royal Company took over most of the fisheries and international trade. An intervention in domestic production that where virtually unparalleled in the history of the country until the late 18th century. Transforming the tenants farming system and linking together the fishing production and commercial activities, increased the annual Royal revenues of the islands exponentially from what it was before. A reform that was in strict contradiction to traditional economic interests in Iceland.

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Natascha Mehler

Senior researcher, Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum Bremerhaven, Germany

The cultural and religous impact of the Hansards in Iceland and Faroe

From the 15th century onwards until the 17th century, Iceland, Faroe and Shetland were drawn into the trading networks of merchants from Bremen, Hamburg and other Hanseatic cities. The economic connections between the Germans on the one hand and the islanders on the other hand had not only a profound impact on the political histories of the islands. Cultural reformations were another consequence. The paper will discuss how the German merchants profoundly impacted the spread of Lutheran faith on the islands, and how locals and foreigners adapted their specific trade mechanisms to successfully cooperate in business. Included is a discussion of relevant archaeological material culture from Iceland, Shetland and Faroe, and ways of interdisciplinary interpretation thereof.

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Bart Holterman, Germany

"Sudden reformation or gradual process? Cooperation between merchants from different countries around the introduction of the Danish trade monopoly in Iceland (1601)."

In 1601, king Christian IV of Denmark forbade all foreigners to trade with Iceland, and granted the privilege to citizens of the Danish cities Helsingør, Malmø and Copenhagen. The German merchants, predominantly from Hamburg, who had dominated the trade with Iceland during the 16th century, complained that the king's decision had come completely unexpected, and disappeared from the trade with the island in a few years.

But was this reform really so sudden as the Hamburg merchants made it appear? There are many signs that the introduction of the Danish trade monopoly in Iceland was a more gradual process, during which the influence of the German merchants in Iceland was slowly reduced. This paper will explore how German merchants responded to these changing circumstances by competing - or cooperating - with merchants from other cities and countries.

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Hrefna Róbertsdóttir, Iceland

Head of preservation, National Archives of Iceland

Monopoly or free trade, attitudes and integration in the 18th century North Atlantic

What were the views and experiences on the foreign trade in Iceland after two centuries of Danish trade monopoly in the 17th and 18th centuries? Trade was one of the topics that a royal commission set up in 1770 wanted viewpoints on, both from officials and the public. Writings from the locals in 1770 shed an interesting light on how the locals interacted with the foreign traders and shows their views on their presence in the country in the decades just before the monopoly was lifted, in aperiod before formal chartered towns were established following the free trade in 1787. At the same time as the monopoly was abandoned in Iceland and Northern Norway in 1787, the trade in Greenland and the Faroe Islands continued as a monopoly. This paper will explore the indications of how foreign merchants culturally and economically impacted Icelandic society during the monopoly period.

ABSTRACT. The ways and means societies have to sustain themselves have often changed slowly and over long periods of time. Environmental history usually benefits from a long-term view, because changes are often only visible in a very long-term context. However, there are exceptions to this, and changes often occur suddenly. There are several kinds of changes. One is the internal change, where a system of provision of food needs to be adapted to a growing population, upgraded to provide more food. Such an adaptation can happen in a short time period. Another kind is the sort of environmental change caused when a new country across the ocean is settled with traditional methods brought along by settlers. This can cause widespread ecological disruption, for example. Other kinds of external shocks can also cause sudden and far-reaching changes in the systems of provision themselves, and the ecology along the way, especially pandemics that cause mass death, and this results in a new kind of systemic upgrade, now with a lesser intensity of land use, in a sort of reversal of intensification of agriculture. Both the long-term view on the development of systems of provision and examples of sudden disruptions of these systems should be considered when the whole development of a settlement process is scrutinized. The example discussed here is the transplantation of systems of provision from Norway to Iceland in the 9th century AD.

ABSTRACT. This paper investigates the processes that led to the introduction of the Pay-As-You-Earn tax scheme in Denmark on January 1 1970. In Danish history, the introduction of the PAYE-scheme broke new ground in several ways: It changed the relationship between the municipalities and the central government. It changed the standing of wives in relation to their husbands. It changed the relationship between citizens and the government. Moreover, it entailed the creation of the – hitherto and for many years to come – largest computer installation in Denmark.

The investigation is primarily based on previously unexploited archival resources. Material from Danish National Archives is supplemented by sources found in the Historical Archive of CSC as well as the archive of The Confederation of Danish Employers. The material has been analyzed with the Social Construction of Technology approach, as outlined by Bijker and Pinch. By identifying the relationships between politicians, the bureaucrats of the central government, the municipalities, the employers, the system developers and the citizens, the paper attempts to uncover to what degree these agents were able to influence the creation of the PAYE-system and how they did so.

The paper concludes, that the social democratic politicians and bureaucrats – inspired by Keynes – saw the new EDP-technology as the one suitable and necessary way to introduce the PAYE-scheme. Commercial system developers quickly aligned, which resulted in scientific system developers being sidetracked. Municipalities exercised some influence on the process, whereas the various employers’ associations etc. misunderstood the rules of the game and missed the opportunity. Conservative and liberal politicians’ views had little impact and interventions from ordinary taxpayers primarily served to remind the bureaucrats, that the biggest challenge was not the technology – but the juridical and administrative practices that had to be uprooted and replaced by a new taxation paradigm.

ABSTRACT. Min presentation har bäring på frågor om sjukdomsspridning under äldre tid samt frågor om djurhållning, agrarekonomi och krisberedskap i de tidigmoderna nordiska staterna. Uppmärksamheten riktas i huvudsak mot det svenska riket (Sverige och Finland), men även relationen till Danmark är av intresse.

Under 1700-talet drabbades många nötkreatur i Europa av smittsamma och dödliga infektionssjukdomar. Internationella beräkningar visar att runt 200 miljoner djur dog i Europa under denna tid. Det svenska riket var inget undantag. Flera stora utbrott ägde rum och kreatursförlusterna uppgick till flera hundratusen. Då nötkreaturen hade en oumbärlig roll inom jordbruket – som dragare, gödsel-, mat- och råvaruproducenter – så följde allvarliga brister inom den agrara ekonomins nästintill alla delar, både lokalt och nationellt. Den svenska statsledningen påbörjade med landshövdingarnas hjälp ett systematiskt bekämpningsarbete ute i bygderna. Kampen mot boskapssjukan pågick särskilt intensivt under perioden 1720-1770 då kreatursförlusterna var som störst.

Sjukdomarna gick under olika namn i det svenska riket, exempelvis ”boskapssjuka” och ”kreaturspest”. Begreppens motsvarigheter inom modern veterinär diagnostik har tidigare diskuterats inom historieforskningen, men någon mer ingående undersökning har aldrig tidigare presenterats. I min forskning har jag utvecklat en retrospektiv diagnosticeringsmetod som tar fasta på symptombeskrivningar, och kommit fram till att alla de stora sjukdomsutbrotten bland nötkreaturen i det svenska riket under 1700-talet orsakades av antingen mjältbrand (eng. anthrax) eller boskapspest (eng. rinderpest). Mjältbrand härjade framförallt i Finland och norra Sverige och boskapspest endast i södra och mellersta Sverige. Enligt samtida betraktare kom boskapspesten alltid från Danmark; den spreds via handeln över Öresund.

Mitt föredrag syftar till att presentera några viktiga resultat från min forskning (finansierad av det svenska Vetenskapsrådet) om boskapssjukan i 1700-talets svenska rike och diskutera resultaten i relation till liknande forskning i de nordiska länderna. Tidigare nordiska jämförelser på området saknas helt inom forskningen, men kan kanske genom denna presentation komma till stånd.

ABSTRACT. På et grundlæggende niveau karakteriseres det civiliserede menneske af, at det lever i afhængighed af at blive forsynet med den føde og de fornødenheder, det enten har fravalgt at producere (klassisk civilisation), eller som det er ude af stand til selv at producere (vestlig civilisation). Dermed træder afskeden med selvforsyningsevnen frem som den centrale begivenhed i al civilisationshistorie, og den er altid forbundet med overgangen til en ny fødestrategi, som forudsætter omfordelingssystemer og adfærdsregulering. Den klassiske strategi betjener sig af tvang som et middel til omfordeling, den opstod senest for 6000 år siden og knytter sig indirekte til det primitive jordbrug, der udviklede sig i Den Frugtbare Halvmåne for 10.000-13.000 år siden. Den vestlige betjener sig derimod af udveksling over et marked som sit omfordelingssystem, og den opretholdes af det samarbejde mellem fremmede om overlevelsen, som er forudsætningen for omlæggelsen til plovbrug i det transalpine Nordvesteuropa i 1100-årene.

Der findes altså to forskellige civilisationsformer i verden i dag, de er bundet til hver deres fødestrategi, som kræver bestemte normer for adfærd for at kunne opretholdes, og det er de to grundindstillinger i menneskets natur for social samarbejde, slægtningefavorisering og reciprok altruisme, som er deres styresystemer. Omlæggelsen til plovbrug var dermed en skelsættende begivenhed, måske den vigtigste i menneskets civilisationshistorie, fordi den hviler på gensidig afhængighed og kooperativ adfærd mellem almindelige mennesker. Plovbruget anviste vejen til den moderne verden.

ABSTRACT. Life-writing, et samlebegreb for en mængde forskellige subjektberetninger baseret på biografiserende materiale, er et ekspanderende felt indenfor humanistisk forskning. Denne panelsession tematiserer brugen af life-writing i historiefaget, dens fordele og bagdele med hensyn til nordisk historieskrivning og historisk kundskabsdannelse.

Med udgangspunkt i konstruktionen af historisk aktørskab, et tema som i historiefaget har drejet sig omkring spørgsmål angående individernes muligheder til at give “uttryck för sig själva” versus det at være fanget af omstændighederne, vil paneldebattørerne inviteres til reflektion over brugen af subjektberetninger i egen forskning. Vi vil undersøge hvordan individer fra højst forskellige sociale lag har klaret at formidle “sig selv” til en vis grad, baseret på køn, klasse og etnicitets mæssige positioner (Se Maria Sjöberg,red, Personligt talat 2014, jfr. Marander-Eklund & Östman, red, Biografiska betydelser. Norm och Erfarenhet i levnadsberättelser, 2011). Samtidig vil sessionen også sigte imod at undersøge den aktørorienterede livshistoriske forsknings potentiale til at opbygge viden om “grupper” eller sociale lag som er blevet “glemt” eller ikke inkluderet i historieskrivningen. Med andre ord, hvordan historie baseret på denne metode også kan have det formål, som til dels er socialhistorisk, at revidere samfundets struktur.

Vi vil tage eksempler bl.a. fra norske kvindelige næringslivsentreprenører og islandske kvindelige emigranter. Vi vil også undersøge selvopfattelsen hos en islandsk arbejderklasse kvinde som levede omkring århundredeskiftet 1800, ligesom hos finlandsvenske socialister. Her er der bl.a. eksempler på relativt store grupper som i høj grad ser ud til at være havnet udenfor historiefagets grænser, men som er blevet fanget ind ved at tage bestemte typer af biografiserende materiale i brug. Og vi vil også undersøge hvordan enkelte livsbiografier kan afspejle historisk viden mere generelt.

Sessionsleder: Hanna Lindberg, FD, forsker i historie ved Åbo Akademi, Finland

Kommentator: Ann-Catrin Östman, Akademilektor, Åbo Akademi, Finland

INDLÆG:

1. Gudný Hallgrímsdóttir (doktorant i historie ved det Humanistiske fakultet, Islands Universitet): “A Tale of a Fool or a Common Woman's Autobiography. A microhistorical study of an 18th-century peasant woman”.
2. Eirinn Larsen (førsteamanuensis, Institutt for arkeologi, konservering og historie, Universitetet i Oslo): ”Selvgjorte kvinner: gruppebiografien som næringslivshistorisk forskningsprosjekt og sjanger”. 
3. Sigrídur Matthíasdóttir (dr. phil., historiker ved ReykjavíkAkademiet (www.akademia.is)): "Ugifte kvinder som emigrerede fra Island til Nord-Amerika 1870-1914. Biografiserende kildemateriale som en måde til at få viden om et “glemt” socialt lag”.
4. Maria Sjöberg (professor i historia, Göteborgs Universitet): ”Enskilt liv, generell kunskap. Om livsberättelser i historisk forskning”.

ABSTRACT. UNESCO’s initial mission was to carry out a piece of mental engineering, which could form the basis of a genuine solidarity between people in the shadow of World War II.

The Organization immediately undertook the task of identifying and modifying concepts which seemed to cause tensions, such as its renowned showdown with the concept of race. An equally important task was to provide and promote conceptual alternatives that could form the basis of the post-war world. That included unifying concepts such as ‘universalism’ and ‘international understanding’ as well as the notion of ‘mankind’ or ‘l’humanité’, which again gave rise to the idea of a ‘common cultural heritage’. In November 1947 UNESCO even established a Committee of Experts for the Philosophical Analysis of Fundamental Concepts with British historian E.H. Carr as chairman. Also concepts such as ‘cultural relativism’, ‘multiculturalism’ and ‘cultural diversity’, which recognize a world full of differences, have been influenced significantly by UNESCO’s work. Add to that the Organization’s immense work on conceptual standard-setting within all branches of science to create a common language for scientists all over the world.

But how were concepts identified in practice? What were the conceptual trends along the way? Which individuals and networks influenced their definition? What external events and ways of thinking affected the work? And what was the role of the non-Western world in the definition of concepts that were often found in Western usage and promoted as universal? Does it make sense to create a new research project, and a reference work, with a particular focus on UNESCO’s conceptual history? And if so, how should it be carried out? These are some of the questions that will be discussed by the contributors to this roundtable on the basis of their own research on UNESCO and focus on particular historical concepts.

ABSTRACT. Nya vetenskapliga rön som visade på hygienens hälsofrämjande effekter var en viktig del i det sena 1800-talets ökade intresse för hemmets skötsel. Det rena, moderna hemmet krävde större arbetsinsatser och förutsatte en omfördelning av hushållets resurser. Utbudet av hälsofrämjande varor, såsom skurmedel och bomullsvaror, reviderade i sin tur synen på smuts och renlighet. Ekonomhistorikerna De Vries och Mokyr lyfter t ex fram efterfrågan på nya varor som en förklaring till hushållens förändrade genusarbetsdelning och framväxten av familjeförsörjar- hemmafruidealet. Utvecklingen medförde inte bara större arbetsinsatser för gifta kvinnor i det egna hemmet utan också att fler kvinnor kunde försörja sig på hushållsarbete i andras hem. Hemmets centrala roll och huslighet som dygd har främst betraktats som ett ideal förknippat med 1800-talets borgerlighet. Men via upplysningskampanjer, rådgivningslitteratur och reklam för inrednings- och konsumtionsvaror fick huslighetsidealet även spridning till samhällets bredare lager. Vi vill belysa ett brett spektrum av frågor kring hemmets utformning, modernisering och skötsel kring sekelskiftet 1900. Med empiriska exempel hämtade från stad och landsbygd i både Sverige och Finland diskuteras hushållens arbetsdelning och kvinnors obetalda och betalda hemarbete, men även hushållens konsumtion av hälsofrämjande varor kopplat till synen på renlighet och förändrade levnadsmönster och ideal. Gemensamt för sessionens bidrag är även att vi, utifrån olika perspektiv, intresserar oss för hur dessa ideal förmedlades av olika aktörer såsom statliga myndigheter, kommersiella intressen samt privata aktörer som t ex husmodersförbunden.

OPLÆG:

1. Johanna Annola (Tammerfors universitet, Finland): Renlighet i finska fattiggårdar kring sekelskiftet 1900
2. Karin Carlsson (Stockholms universitet, Sverige): Rent kök. Materiella förutsättningar och personlig duglighet – hygien och huslighet under 1900-talets första decennier
3. Marie Ulväng (Uppsala universitet, Sverige): Nya varor och nya varor. Snygghet och huslighet kring sekelskiftet 1900

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS

Renlighet i finska fattiggårdar kring sekelskiftet 1900
Johanna Annola

Årtiondena kring sekelskiftet 1900 skapades, under strikt kontroll av statsmyndigheterna, ett nätverk av kommunala fattiggårdar i Finland. Under samma tidsperiod knöts befattningen som fattiggårdsföreståndare samman med vård och folkuppfostran och konstituerades som en kvinnlig medelklassposition. Enligt statsmyndigheternas åsikt utgjorde föreståndarinnor en mellanhand mellan statsmakten och det lokala: en ideal föreståndarinna var en upplyst husmoder som förmedlade moderna idéer om hushållsarbete och hygien till den breda allmänheten. Den nödvändiga utrustning som fattiggårdarna försågs med utgjordes av föremål som kunde vara så gott som okända i ”allmogehemmen” i slutet av 1800-talet: en järnsäng med lättskötta sängkläder, en hylla och klädhängare för kläder, en mugg och ett par tallrikar av emaljerad bleckplåt samt en kniv, en gaffel och en sked för varje fattighjon. Detta papper handlar om hur idéerna kring huslighet och renlighet nådde ut och förankrades på fattiggårdarna. Dels undersöks hur dessa idéer framfördes i det material som representerar statsmyndigheternas perspektiv (handböcker, cirkulär och inspektionsrapporter). Dels undersöks hur föreståndarinnorna på lokal nivå förhöll sig till myndigheternas krav.

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Rent kök. Materiella förutsättningar och personlig duglighet – hygien och huslighet under 1900-talets första decennier
Karin Carlsson

Köket som rum speglar på ett tydligt sätt samhällsförändringar i stort, inte minst gällande genusrelationer, klasspositioner och teknisk utveckling. Men det visar även på den privata sfärens konsumtions- och produktionsmönster och hur dessa förändrats över tid. I samband med debatter rörande trångboddhet, låg boendestandard och individens rätt till god bostad kom köket också att politiseras under 1900-talets första decennier. Detta innebar att rumsliga dimensioner kom att diskuteras på ett nytt sätt och materiella förutsättningar för det praktiska köksarbetet blev en politisk fråga. Samtidigt etablerades en ny huslighetsdiskurs som omfamnade både materiella och karaktärsmässiga aspekter där renlighet och hygien kom att utgöra viktiga inslag. I köket hanterades råvaror samtidigt som avfall producerades, kläder tvättades och den personliga hygienen sköttes. Hur detta organiserades kunde alltså visa på grad av huslighet. Jag ska här undersöka hur idealköket blev ett rent kök och vilka förutsättningar olika aktörer menade behövdes för att detta skulle ske. Genom en analys av handböcker för hemmets skötsel, nationella och lokala utställningar där olika kök och kökslösningar presenterades, samt en analys av de diskussioner som skedde på nationell politisk nivå är min ambition att ringa in hur bilderna av idealköket tog form under 1900-talets första decennier. Dessa resultat kommer sedan att diskuteras i relation till ”verklighetens kök” hämtade från Gävle, en industri- och hamnstad 20 mil norr Stockholm som vid tiden var Sveriges femte största stad. Genom en analys av bland annat fotografier, anteckningar gjorda av hälsopoliser och bostadsinspektörer, planritningar samt inventarielistor kommer existerande kök att problematiseras i relation till de ideal som förmedlades. Sammantaget innebär detta att det nationella diskuteras i relation till det lokala, ideal i relation till praktik och stad i relation till landsbygd. Klass och genus utgör de centrala tolkningsramarna. Utöver detta låter jag mig inspireras av Beverly Skeggs och hennes diskussion kring begreppet respektabilitet.

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Nya varor och nya varor. Snygghet och huslighet kring sekelskiftet 1900
Marie Ulväng

Historikerna Mokyr och de Vries har lyft fram vetenskapens nya rön kring renlighet och hygien samt spridningen av hälsorelaterade konsumtionsvaror såsom tvål, tvättmedel och bomulltyg, som en grundläggande orsak till hushållens ökade hemarbete och övergång till en familjeförsörjarmodell. Den centrala tanken är att sekelskiftets håg för trevnad och renlighet förutsatte en omfördelning av hushållets resurser då det krävdes större arbetsinsatser i hemmet för att omvandla varorna till hygien och hälsa. Motstridiga samhällsrörelser och skilda förutsättningar gjorde att familjeförsörjaridealet praktiserades på skilda sätt inom olika samhällsgrupper och landsdelar. I den nationalromantiskt präglade samhällsdebatten ställdes bilden av det goda lanthemmet mot de industrialiserade städernas trångbodda och osunda lägenheter. Med utgångspunkt i Mokyrs och de Vries förklaringsmodell granskas hemmets och hemarbetets förändringar, hushållens konsumtionsmönster samt synen på renlighet på landsbygden i södra Norrland. Undersökningen baseras på bouppteckningar, vars uppgifter om hemtextilier, möbler och husgeråd gör det möjligt komma åt förändringar i boendestandard, synen på hem- och familjeideal samt kvinnors hushållsarbete. Övrigt material utgörs av svar på frågelistor om tvätt, kläder, hemmets textilier och renlighet, handböcker och tidskrifter om hemmets skötsel samt provinsialläkarrapporter. Synen på renlighet är central och en hypotes är att bondehushållen införskaffade hälsofrämjande varor såsom såpa, tvättservis och järnsäng för att de kunde köpa moderna varor, och inte för att de hade anammat tidens vetenskapliga rön om hygien.

ABSTRACT. A war against tuberculosis was declared in most Western countries around the beginning of the 20th century. The national campaigns were typically led by a powerful, high-profile national anti-tuberculosis association. The paper starts with the claim that, in many cases, these campaigns became a forerunner, or blueprint, for the mature modern public health system. Focusing on Finland, the paper substantiates this claim with both qualitative and quantitative evidence. First, it will be shown that, from the mid-1920s to the mid-1950s, a considerable proportion of medical and nursing workforce, resouces and hospital capacity were engaged in combating tuberculosis. Second, the paper discusses a set of practices and solutions that were first developed in the field of anti-tuberculosis work and then became parts of Finnish public health system. Third, the paper discusses causal and personal links between anti-tuberculosis and general public health sectors, and particularly the role of Severi Savonen, MD, who was, simultaneously, the secretary general of the Finnish Anti-Tuberculosis Association, the head of the Public Health Division of the National Board of Health, and a member of several state committees dedicated to tuberculosis and public health issues. Most importantly, he was one of the key architects of both tuberculosis legislation (1928 Tuberculosis Decree and 1948 Tuberculosis Act) the pivotal post-war “public health laws” that obliged all municipalities to establish maternity and child health clinics and to employ midwives and public health nurses and that have been regarded as the cornerstones of the Finnish welfare state.

ABSTRACT. I Sverige innebar den lutherska reformationen att ett nära band mellan kyrka och stat etablerades. Svenska kyrkan blev med tiden statens förlängda arm med uppgift att registrera befolkningen, samtidigt som den behöll sitt sociala och moraliska inflytande över människors förehavanden, bl. a genom sitt arbete i de sociala nämnderna från det tidiga 1800-talet till 1900-talets första decennier. Kyrkliga aktörer har därmed varit delaktiga i att dra gränser mellan tillhörande och främlingar, och skapa uppdelningar mellan värdiga och ovärdiga fattiga. Min presentation handlar om Svenska kyrkans verksamheter på det sociala fältet under decennierna kring sekelskiftet 1900, en period då migration formulerades och hanterades som ett socialt problem på lokal, nationell och internationell nivå. Detta, avgränsandet av ett problemområde, kan analyseras som en kreativ process för dem som är "innanför", en process som skapar arbetstillfällen, nya projekt och termer, nya kunskapsområden mm. Det finns inget som har varit så produktivt – intellektuellt, socialt, ekonomiskt etc. – för expansionen av det sociala som föreställningen om den fattige främlingen. Denna föreställning har materialiserats i olika kategorier – lösdrivare, tattare, zigenare, flyktingar m fl. – som gett upphov till olika slags interventioner (policy och praktik) och kunskapsområden. Arbetet med att kartlägga, övervaka, hantera, utestänga, förändra eller förbättra den fattiga främlingen har utvecklats inom olika discipliner, professioner och politikområden. Oron, rädslan och hatet för, men också omtanken om den fattige främlingen har gett upphov till en mängd idéer, praktiker, yrken, institutioner, marknader, etc. som kan studeras på flera nivåer. Min forskning fokuserar på Svenska kyrkans roll i dessa processer.

ABSTRACT. In 1993 an article in the Lancet about possible health harms of trans fats caused strong reactions in Denmark among researchers, the media and subsequently the margarine industry. In 2003 the Danish Government issued a ban on industrially produced trans fats. So far few countries have followed Denmark. Why did this become such a big issue in Denmark? Reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, parliament documents etc. were studied to analyse the process leading to the ban. Researchers played a very active role in promoting the ban. They allied with the industry, politicians and civil servants to achieve their goal, all actors translated the issue in a way to support their case. The researchers produced reports to provide policymakers with arguments and they used the media actively. They focused on industrially produced trans fats, leaving ruminant trans fats aside; thereby they did not have to deal with the complicated task of avoiding ruminant trans fats. Furthermore they averted a confrontation with the strong Danish agricultural lobby with which some of the researchers had financial bonds. In the US the labelling requirements do not differ between the two types of trans fats. Researchers translated results to support their agenda, and their mental maps, and overlooked or misinterpreted results, which contradicted their message about the harms of the industrially produced trans fats. When researchers act in the policy process they may be influenced by their agenda in a way, which could be labelled a co-production of research and policy. Is and ought may be confused, as researchers act politically. IP trans fats were banned on, at the time, seemingly weak scientific grounds. Researchers were carried away by an apparently good cause and forgot about scientific rigour when they acted politically.

ABSTRACT. This study examines the establishment of Väestöliitto, the Finnish Population and Family Welfare League, in 1941 as a process of reframing Finnish population policy. The Winter War (1939–40) against the Soviet Union left the country with a nationalist underdog trauma: Finland was a young nation state with a small population, neighbouring a powerful and hostile country. As a result, a group of people representing social and health policy associations and politically engaged organisations founded a new umbrella organisation, which sought to call attention to the ‘population question’.

The ‘population question’ referred to the alarmed and unproblematised notion that Finland faced a population crisis, and the number as well as the quality of the population needed to be elevated. According to the founders of the new association, Finnish population policy needed a drastic reform in order for Finland to be able to withstand the geopolitical threat posed by the Soviet Union.

The paper addresses the following research questions: How did the founders of Väestöliitto construct and frame the ‘population question’? What was identified, defined and represented as the cause of the population crisis, and, respectively, as the remedy? As a non-governmental expert organisation, what was defined as the new association’s role in furthering these new population policy goals?

ABSTRACT. The body is what we use to experience the world; with the body we perceive, process and establish knowledge. In the early modern European world, society, monarchy and the family were primarily understood in the form of corporeal metaphors. The history of the body in early modernity has had much to do with sexuality, punishment and the creation of racial difference but it is also an anachronistically secular history. Whereas medieval Christianity involved all sorts of corporeality, from relics, stigmata to the mortification of the flesh, after the Reformation Protestants apparently became less involved with their bodies and materiality in a religious sense. Research on the body in relation to gender, race and medicine has established that the early modern body was a leaky, malleable vessel, prone to disturbances and therefore also in constant need of adjustment, but it has been unable to fit the pious body into this picture. The session investigates the relationship between the body and faith in the Nordic countries during the long Reformation. Its purpose is to understand how emotions, materiality and the corporeal interacted with and shaped lay religious culture. Issues to explore include corporeal reactions or understandings of sin, truth and the Word of God; physical effects of using religious literature or artefacts; the body as a vehicle of performance and creation of piety; embodied faith and individuation; how religion influenced healing practices and how religious assumptions influenced contemporary perceptions of the physical.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Sari Katajala-Peltomaa & Raisa Maria Toivo (University of Tampere): Lived Religion in Northern Europe: individuality and bodily practices in the ‘Long Reformation’?
2. Louise Nyholm Kallestrup (University of Southern Denmark): An Ungodly Body. Embodied Emotions in Danish Witchcraft Prosecutions.
3. Anton Runesson (Stockholm University): Protestant interpretations of labour pain in seventeenth-century Sweden.
4. Karin Sennefelt (Stockholm University): The body and the Word in seventeenth-century Sweden.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Lived Religion in Northern Europe: individuality and bodily practices in the ‘Long Reformation’?
Sari Katajala-Peltomaa & Raisa Maria Toivo, University of Tampere 

Our paper asks how and why bodily expressions of intimacy and individuality changed during the era of the ‘Long Reformation’ in descriptions of devotion in judicial documents from the medieval canonization processes and early modern court records. Traditionally, medieval religion is seen as ‘ritualism’ while increase in individualism and inner spirituality is seen as a product of Reformation. We argue that rituals were not mere empty ceremonies but tangible ways to live out one’s religion and create spirituality or religious emotion in one’s community. Since needs and aspirations on a communal level did not change simultaneously with the transnational dogma, a continuity of practices can be found. We approach religion as ’lived’ in the sense that religious concepts was performed and experienced by people in their daily lives. More broadly, the bodily expressions of individuality serve as a case study to explore the methodological challenges and benefits of studying religion as emotional experience.

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An Ungodly Body. Embodied Emotions in Danish Witchcraft Prosecutions
Louise Nyholm Kallestrup, University of Southern Denmark 

The body was crucial in early modern witchcraft. Descriptions of malevolent as well as benevolent magical practices included bodily remedies, especially body fluids such as urine, blood and milk. Usually trials were about the evil will, anger and vengeance of a witch, who had caused illness or accidents to strike on people or livestock. This made the body the target for, as well as the evidence of witchcraft. The evil intentions worked through the body as well as upon the body, and the negative emotions of a witch, especially anger, could have severe physical consequences. Present day division of body and soul was alien to early modern dwellers. The body was physical and social. The witch herself was regarded a dishonourable being and an “ungodly body”, to quote a clergyman from Northern Jutland in a trial against a local woman. Popular ideas of witchcraft regarded the witch as evil and a destructive. To theologians and the like, the witch had forsaken God and given herself to the Devil. Either way this made her body a prime disturber of moral and social order. In this paper I intend to explore further these notions of embodiment and emotions related to witchcraft, by drawing primarily on Danish court records from the first decades of the 17th century.

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Protestant interpretations of labour pain in seventeenth-century Sweden 

Anton Runesson, Stockholm University 

This paper addresses the relationship between pain during childbirth and truth in 17th -century Sweden. With the Protestant Reformation, notions of the female body and its foetus, of pain and of the situation of lying-in were reinterpreted. According to Protestant doctrine, “God as midwife” took an active part in delivering children, and helping to deliver women who believed in Him. Previous research investigating court cases dealing with childbirth has focussed on the situation of lying-in as one similar to torture; a situation in which pain while giving birth was used so as to make women reveal the names of their children’s fathers. In many Swedish cases, another relationship between the body, pain and truth is discernible, however: a relationship where true words spoken actually influenced the body as they beguiled the time of labour. Accordingly, this paper will instead ask how “true” words affected the body in pain. It will scrutinize the connection between true words spoken during pain and the surmounting of pain in general, and truth spoken during labour pains and a successful delivery of a child in particular.

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The body and the Word in seventeenth-century Sweden

Karin Sennefelt, Stockholm University

Swedish subjects were encouraged to pray throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries for God to save them from war, famine and plague. As a collective, Lutherans had a responsibility to live devoutly, eradicate sin and to pray ardently so that God might be merciful and protect the realm and its inhabitants. While this relationship between the physical wellbeing of Swedish subjects and their piety has been well researched, it has mainly been done so in terms of theological propaganda wielded by an ever expanding state power. However, the connections between healing and piety also were significant in the everyday and in individual cases. 3 This paper investigates medical tracts and significant medical cases to understand how prayer and piety were utilised in healing practices. Previous research has shown that Protestant lands were receptive to the medicine of Paracelsus which regarded the body as a chemical workshop, illness as caused by external disturbances and gave primacy to the medical knowledge of the laity. Nature and the cures that could be precipitated from it, as well as medical knowledge, were gifts from God and should be utilised for the benefit of human beings. Still, God’s grace was essential for protection from illness and suffering and prayer an indispensable component to healing. Starting from the perspective of obtaining cure or comfort for the individual—rather than protection of the whole realm—this paper examines how medicine and theology interacted in healing practices. It investigates the agency of humans and God as well as the effectiveness of natural and spiritual procedures when attempting to heal, cure and comfort the ill. It argues that theology and medicine were not at odds with each other, but functioned together in making procedures effective and cures potent. In so doing, it also discusses the effects of piety on the natural world. 

ABSTRACT. Across disciplines, academic scholarship emphasizes the Age of Reformation for its pivotal role in transforming European medieval society. Following the pioneering work of Max Weber, a major area of scholarly interest has been on the role of the Reformation as a steppingstone towards modernity, capitalism and the formation of the secularized state. Charles Taylor, for example, considers the Reformed tradition to be decisive for the process of secularization and William Cavanaugh hails Martin Luther for anticipating modern (capitalist) social imagination. This tradition interprets Luther’s break with the Catholic theology of the sacraments as an accentuation of the relationship and commitment of the individual believer to God and as a devaluation of the connection between sacrament and sociality. However, a growing body of literature is starting to question this opposition between sacramentality and sociality. In this paper, I argue that Luther’s theology of sacrament, particularly his understanding of the Eucharist, in fact embodies a so-called sacramental realism meaning a sanctification of everyday life. In doing so, I will discuss the historical implications of considering Lutheran theology from the perspective the community and everyday life. Indeed, we might consider, why did European princes prove so quick to accept the Lutheran reforms? Was this purely a matter of high politics and securing political authority or did Lutheran theology help stabilize and advance a social cohesion? What historical understanding of sociality can we draw from the Lutheran Eucharist and conception of community of believers? What influences has this sociality had on the development of Nordic societies?

ABSTRACT. The Church Ordinance of King Christian III caused radical changes of the Icelandic social system and the economy. The episcopal sees were the wealthiest institutions in Icelandic society and mostly responsible for driving the medieval economy. They were the backbones of the economical and social system. According to these articles, the superintendent was entitled to keep 2 female servants, a secretary, one male servant and a horseman who was to look after four horses. Added to this staff was a messenger-boy, who was to be taught on the premises. The superintendent was further entitled to 2 loads of rye, 4 loads of malt, 2 loads of oats, 50 loads of hay, 10 loads of straw, 40 lambs and 100 guilders in good gold. No wonder Bischop Ögmundur rejected the Church Ordinance with the famous words:

… for it is evil and empty in its inception, has but an excessive middle and its end is abominable.

The areas of activity and influence and the material basis of the bishop's office had been radically changed. That is how this relatively short text bore a dangerously explosive message which would meet with great resistance. There, the Catholic Church and the office of the bishop had developed for more than 500 years and together they had formed one of the most effective structures of Icelandic community life. Even if the estates of the bishop were not destroyed in Iceland, the Church had in fact been prevented from both economic and general engagement in society. The office of superintendent was the highest office an Icelander could hold and was regarded as an authoritative one in the centuries to come. All this does not hide the fact that it was merely a middle rung in the hierarchical ladder of the Danish state.

ABSTRACT. Efter Reformationens gennemførelse i første halvdel af 1500-tallet skulle den nye tro implementeres i alle leder og kanter af samfundet. Befolkningen skulle på mange måder genopdrages til en ny kirkegang med landsherren som kirkefyrste. Reformationen og den efterfølgende konfessionalisering af samfundet medførte et ønske fra både kirkefyrstens og kirkeledelsens side om at kontrollere forskellige sider af kirkelivet. Den danske konge udsendte derfor et hav af forordninger og regulativer for at reformere og ordne kirkernes praktiske og daglige styring. De overordnede instrukser i 1500-, 1600- og 1700-årene skulle også sikre, at kirkerne tilkom de retmæssige midler, hvilket øjensynligt ellers langt fra altid var tilfældet. Den tidligt-moderne statsdannelse, som var under optræk i 1500- og 1600-årene, søgte dermed en ensartet lovgivning med indlagte kontrolinstanser for at sikre rammerne for kirkelivet i forhold til de religiøse aktiviteter og i forhold til de økonomiske aktiviteter. Det viste sig dog svært at sikre en ensretning på området, hvilket kirkernes regnskabsføring kan være et eksempel på. Lokale forhold blev ofte udslagsgivende for de lokale muligheder, og fyrstens magt og kontrol var muligvis ikke så gennemført i alle afkroge af riget i 1500- og 1600-årene. Der var stor forskel på land og by, og der var stor forskel på landlige områder og byer indbyrdes. Dette paper er en præsentation af den seneste forskning inden for kirkeregnskaber, som bidrager til en nuancering af et element i statsopbygningen efter reformationen. En komparativ undersøgelse af fire provinskøbstæders kirkeregnskaber og tre landsognes kirkeregnskaber i 1600- og 1700-årene viser, hvor stor betydning forskellige lokale forhold havde for statsmagtens muligheder i forhold til egentlig kontrol. De viser desuden hvor stor betydning en nærhed eller en afstand til fyrstemagten havde i forhold til overholdelse af regler.

ABSTRACT. Norden (or Scandinavia) is a well-established brand in international research. Categories such as the Nordic model of welfare, Nordic gender equality, Nordic democracy, Nordic consensualism are repeatedly used by researchers describing the Nordic societies in their own right or through larger comparisons. Historians often use these categories with some unease. On one hand they are efficient generalizations describing key features in Nordic societies, on the other hand we are aware that they only tell a partial truth. In Nordic historiography we can distinguish between four approaches. First, we have the tradition of parallel histories of the five Nordic countries. Here we find both general historical accounts and more specialized studies. Second, we have numerous examples of one or two countries representing the Nordic experience. This is typically the case in larger comparative studies, and in most cases Sweden has played the role of the epitome of the Nordic model. Third, we have a growing number of studies focusing on transnational Nordic phenomena. This includes transnational actors, Nordic cooperation, and Nordic institutions. Fourth, we have ideational or conceptual studies interested in how the idea of Norden has been discussed or communicated. Through a thorough discussion on the advantages and limits of these approaches we want to stimulate a methodological discussion on how to write Nordic history in the 21st Century? How do develop an analytical framework that allows us to include the transnational perspective without excluding the role of the Nordic nation states?

Organizers: Pauli Kettunen & Klaus Petersen 

Invited participants: 

• Mary Hilson, Århus University: “Beyond Nordic history: Comparisons and entanglements” 
• Marja Javala Helsinki Universitet/Åbo Akademi, : "Norden as a historiographical region" 
• Gudmundur Jonsson, University of Iceland: Writing Nordic history - Icelandic perspectives 
  Commentators: Pauli Kettunen & Klaus Petersen

ABSTRACT. Armed conflict and natural disasters force millions to leave their homes every year. This paper explores the concepts and language through which the humanitarian sector has understood the challenges of acute crises. It examines how the geopolitical situation during and after the Cold War have influenced discourse in the field, and the impact that the shift from Keynesian to neoliberal economics has had on humanitarian vocabularies. The paper addresses humanitarian concepts as political instruments reflecting objectives of preservation of life, guidance, and emancipation, thereby involving interests and power relations between donors and recipients, rather than being self-evident goals and laudable responses to crises. It combines an empirical approach with an awareness of theoretical issues in history and the social sciences. By focusing on rationales and conceptual histories in the lexicon of humanitarianism, it contributes to critical reflection on a field dominated by time-bound buzzwords. While appropriating the theoretical and methodological insights of constructivism and conceptual history, it broadens the field by referring to recent history, to an extended set of agents and sources, and to transnational encounters. The survey encompasses voluntary organisations, government agencies, and UN bodies, and will synthesise and complement these results by including additional historical and geographical evidence.

ABSTRACT. Hur ska vi förstå den privatiseringsvåg som sköljde över Västeuropa från slutet av 1900-talet då verksamheter som tidigare utförts i allmän regi flyttades till privata företag? Frågan om vem som ska sköta allmänna uppgifter har varit en politisk stridsfråga under flera epoker. Vi hävdar att privatiseringarna måste sättas in i ett längre tidsperspektiv för att visa hur gamla tankefigurer döljer sig bakom moderna argument. Genom att undersöka hur motsättningen mellan egennyttan och det gemensamma bästa har konstruerats i politiska diskurser under flera tidsperioder, kan vi skapa bättre verktyg för att analysera det förment sakliga innehållet i dagens debatt. Vi har studerat diskussioner på riksnivå (Sveriges riksdag) och lokal nivå (Stockholms stad) under fyra sekler, och undersökt vilka argument som varit avgörande då politikerna fattat beslut om att byta utförare. Utifrån fem delstudier på respektive nivå kan vi visa vilka rörelser i den politiska diskursen som påverkat beslutsfattare. Vi har inspirerats av Janet Newmans och John Clarkes teori om ”publicness”, där föreställningar om vad det allmänna bästa innebär, vilka värden som ska skyddas och vem som ska få del av dem har formats och reproducerats i politiska debatter. Under äldre tid handlade debatten om allmännyttan till stor del om utförarnas personliga vandel. På 1700-talet dominerade frågor om ordning, rättvisa och lägsta kostnad för skattebetalarna. Från mitten av 1800-talet kom argument om lika tillgång till allmänna nyttigheter att få allt större tyngd, och allmänintresset kopplades i allt högre grad samman med offentliga utförare. Denna utveckling bröts under 1900-talets sista decennier, då individens valfrihet hamnade i centrum och gjorde privatiseringar till ett attraktivt alternativ. Som en följd av detta krympte den offentliga sfären och diskussionerna om allmännyttan kom att fokusera på specifika grupper. Undersökningen visar hur de politiska diskurserna utvecklats och hur föreställningarna om det allmänna bästa har varierat över tid.

ABSTRACT. The Danish literary scholar and writer Hans Hertel has described the left-wing journal Dialog: Dansk tidsskrift for kultur (1950-1961) as a 'common shelter for communists, socialists, radicals and others from the Students' Society who felt homeless between the frozen fronts of the Cold War'. The same description could very well be used fo the concurrent Norwegian journal Orientering (1952-1975), although its connection with the communists was significantly looser than that of its Danish counterpart. In this paper I aim to explore the history and standing of the two papers in the Scandinavian Cold War atmosphere. I will pay special attention to how the two papers attended to their role as a 'common shelter' and a meeting-place for left-wing intellectuals who felt out of place or were even downright unwelcome in the hegemonic Labour parties in the late 1940s and 1950s. The paper surveys the development of a leftist but non-aligned collective centered around the two journals, and discusses the journals' roles as harbingers of the so-called third wave of Scandinavian cultural radicalism. Based on this, the paper challenges the common notion that the third wave was a phenomenon of the culturally revolutionary 1960s, and argues that a widespread reform challenging society's cultural, sexual, and political norms started already in the 1950s.

ABSTRACT. The Nordic countries survived the Cold War with rather small incidents and damages. The ideological divide nevertheless run within the civic societies and additionally emigrated politicians from Central Eastern Europe strived to keep the faith of their countries in the public discussion. This paper concentrates on Estonian August Koern and his ungrateful task as the representative of the Assembly of Captive European Nations (ACEN) in Copenhagen. His attempts were hampered due to political disputes within national diaspora, poor relations to Danish authorities and organizational shortcomings of the ACEN; including cooperation both with other nationalities and American sponsors. Koern had arrived in Denmark in 1939 as Estonian consul and he remained in Copenhagen after the Soviet occupation and annexation in 1940 erased his official position. When the ACEN wanted to establish a delegation in Copenhagen in 1957, Koern was the obvious choice. He had difficulties in finding partners in other emigrant groups but on the other hand he was free to execute his plans, especially when he could cooperate with his compatriots in the ACEN Office in Stockholm. The ACEN was avoided, because it was generally (and correctly) suspected to be financed by the US intelligence apparatus. Therefore cooperation took place also within the Freedom House in the downtown of Copenhagen. Furthermore, Koern and others were able to exploit the name and money of the ACEN occasionally for their own purposes. The budget of the ACEN was drastically reduced in the 1960s but Koern among other ageing emigrants continued to fight against the odds until the organization was dissolved in 1972. They refused to accept the changes of international politics in the last twenty years and ended up preaching the choir, thus their influence cannot be considered very strong.

ABSTRACT. This paper explores previously uncharted territory of Soviet Cultural Diplomacy in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. By examining the visits of four Scandinavian journalists and writers (the Danes Alfred Paulsen and Martin Andersen Nexø, the Norwegian Erling Bühring-Dehli and the Swede Ingvar Larsson) to the Soviet Union between June 1939 and March 1940, the paper argues that the political purges or ‘Great Terror’ of 1936–1938 had not undermined the status of cultural diplomacy in advancing Soviet interests as seriously as is generally assessed.

The visits were overseen by the All-Union Society for Cultural Ties Abroad (VOKS), and took place in the relatively short but dramatic period that included negotiations of the German–Soviet non-aggression treaty, the occupation of Poland, the suppression of the independence of the Baltic states and the Soviet–Finnish Winter War. Since by 1939 similar VOKS operations had become a rarity when compared with the years before the purges, a comprehensive analysis of the background, events and consequences of these particular visits offers unique insight into Soviet diplomatic and cultural strategies and objectives around Scandinavia. The archival records of the visits, together with the visitors’ correspondence and writings, illuminate the intermediary role of VOKS as a guardian of Moscow’s interests: on the eve of northern Europe being engulfed in war, VOKS worked both to spin aggressive Soviet policies in the Baltic states and Finland as stabilizing influence and to gather accurate information on how Moscow’s actions were viewed in the then-neutral Scandinavian countries.

ABSTRACT. Olonec är en region mellan Onega och Ladoga sjön men också en region bebodd av östersjöfinnar fron stenålder och rik av vikingatida fynder och paleoekologiska evidens av en tidig odling. Den ryska staten (Moskva) började att organisera en administration där emellertid bara i slutet av 1400-talet med en klosterkolonisation och en riktig kristianisering intensifierades först efter slutet av 1500-talet. Det första sekulära administration grundades i Olonec i 1646 som ett ansvar mot det svenska Sortavala.

Det alt menade en ryssisk och orthodox penetration intill ett östersjöfinskt hedniskt samhälle. Å andra sidan har den svenska statsbildningen hänt i den västra Karelien. Lokala människor hade haft sina kontakter sinsemellan och därför en rysk-svensk konfrontation har spelat ingen roll utan kulturella och sociala inflyterser har gått fritt mellan populationer.

Min projekt (finansierad av finska akademin) förklarar den europeaniserings- och statsbildningsprosedur i Olonec fron ca 1500 till ca 1750. Den ryska staatsbildningen är interessant i den europeiska kontext därför, att det moskovitiska riket var mer heterogen än dåfortida västeuropeiska riken. Man kann bara tänka, att Moskva var också mångreligiös: inte bara kristen men också stark islamitisk. Därför Matthiew Romaniello kallar Moskva „the elusive empire“. I Olonec kan man förklara en transformation av det traditionella hedniska samhället, kontakter till Sverige och hur den moskovitiska inflytensen inverkade till prosessen.

Jag har samlat en grupp av min forskareteam, som kan föklara den här prosessen som en spegelbild till Kimmo Katajala’s round table. Vår idea är att visa hur Olonec blev inkluderat till det rysska riket men också att hur det har mycket gemensamt med de prosesser, som häde i Finland (Sverige).

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Jukka Korpela: "The Karelian Transformation".
2. Irina and Oleg Chernyakov: "The Fates of Karelian Refugees in Olonec Karelia".
3. Tatiana Leonteva and Anna Polevaia: "Karelian Settlers in Searchs of New Habitats in Bezheck Hills".
4. Maria Proskuriakova: "The Mechanism of Peasants Elders’ Electing in Karelian Village".

ABSTRACT. How should the future archive sector support the research-based history? Archives worldwide are undergoing a digital transformation in terms of collecting, preserving and making their collections available. The transformation is induced by the digitization of information formation in general, but is also due to an extensive retro-digitization of analogue materials. Preference is often given to genealogical sources – church records, census, military records etc. Even though this material may have some history relevance, it has only marginal importance in other history research contexts.

The purpose of this session is to generate a general discussion on how the archives – in particular the national archives and city archives – adapt to the kind of digital research infrastructure that for instance urban history, but also other history disciplines need in the future and how to create links between research questions and digitization priorities. The session will be based on presentations of concrete cases.

Themes that will fit the aim of this the session could include:

Specific digitization projects that have sought to store and make available large amounts of digital data in archives in dialogue with historians; projects that have organized archive registration systems following the needs and standards suitable to history research; archives that have made history data available as part of open data or linked open data schemes; attempts af combining digital archives with digital humanities and for instance semantic and quantitative analysis tools; outreach activities that have sought to engage a broader audience in the digitization of history archive material.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Søren Bitsch Christensen (Aarhus City Archives, Denmark): Archives and the research – between repositories, open data and citizen science
2. Peter Wessel Hansen (Copenhagen City Archives, Denmark): Digitizing the life stories of Copenhageners. Collecting, digitizing, and transforming memoirs and registration forms in the Copenhagen City Archives

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Søren Bitsch Christensen: Archives and the research – between repositories, open data and citizen science 

The crowd, the archivists or the machine - who should feed the digital collections? Can we trust citizen scientists and volunteer archivists? The paper demonstrates how datasets and tags provided by crowdsourcing is able to enrich the registration and communication of the municipal records. It also demonstrates how digital crowdsourcing for cultural heritage institutions can be a way to a better and a more carefully targeted user-involvement. On the other hand, the expanding use of crowdsourcing may cast shadows on the priorities of researchers and the material chosen for digitization may in the end effect the research that can and will be carried out. How can we make ends meet? The paper evaluates three projects at the Aarhus City Archives.

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Peter Wessel Hansen: Digitizing the life stories of Copenhageners. Collecting, digitizing, and transforming memoirs and registration forms in the Copenhagen City Archives 

The paper presents two very different cases of collecting, digitizing, indexing, and full text keying of archival material relevant to Urban History. The paper also discusses the issue of prioritization between digitization projects involving different types of records. In conclusion, the paper elaborates on the question of how research relevant digitization projects could be facilitated in the future. The first case involves to the collection and digitization of memoirs of Copenhageners. In 1969, the memoirs were collected for the deliberate purpose of providing material for urban historians on the period of rapid change around 1900. Approx. 2000 memoirs were collected and the archives compiled a subject directory. In 2012 the 1969-memoirs and the directory (plus other memoirs collected in 1995) were digitized, made searchable by subject, and available online. The memoirs address the period between the 1890’s and the present and have indeed appeared to be relevant for urban historians engaged in qualitative studies on e.g. migration, accommodation, modernity, and other subjects within the research cultural history of urban communities. The second case focuses on a digitization and crowdsourcing project originally initiated by and for genealogists. The project, however, has turned out to be of great value for professional historians as well. From 2009 The Police Registration Forms – one of the most important records used in research on Copenhageners – were digitized and made searchable online in full text. The Forms were filled out by the Copenhagen police and includes information about every resident in Copenhagen in the period 1890-1923, typically name, date and place of birth, occupation, and addresses. The full text digitization was realized by volunteers who have made the information held in the 1.4 million forms available in an open data format suitable for quantitative and qualitative research on e.g. moving patterns, migration and demographic studies.

ABSTRACT. Sidan byrjinga av 1990-talet har det skjedd ein omfattande og djuptgripande digitalrevolusjon. Eit første gjennombrot kom i 1993 da World Wide Web og e-post blei tilgjengeleg for folk flest, men den store omveltinga kom først nærmare 15 år seinare med den omfattande utbygginga av høghastigheits data- og mobilnett. Det opna for at alle kunne ta i bruk smarttelefonar og nettbrett med personleg tilpassa og sjølvbetente løysingar basert på nett – og mobilteknologi . Omveltinga som følgde av digitalrevolusjonen har ført til omfattande og djuptgripande endringar på dei fleste samfunnsområder, frå militæret til det sivile samfunn, og har gripe inn i dei fleste sidene ved folks liv, privat og i arbeidslivet. Til saman har desse endringane vore så store at det vore hevda at ein kan stille spørsmål om der har skjedd eit epokeskifte, og at ei ny form for modernitet – det digimoderne samfunn – er i ferd med å oppstå. Utgangspunkt for presentasjonen er korleis digitalrevolusjonen har omforma banknæringa på 2000-talet, mellom anna korleis dette har endra arbeidskvardagen for dei banktilsette og kundenes kontakt med banken. Dette vil bli sett inn i ein større samanheng som peiker på generelle og allmenne prosessar som er overførebare til andre næringa og andre samfunnsfelt. Avslutningsvis vil det bli drøfta om det er grunnlag for å hevde at ein ny type modernitet er i ferd med å vekse fram – og om det er behov for eit nytt epokeomgrep.

ABSTRACT. Redressing and compensating the past is not only an urgent moral issue but also a relevant scholarly topic dealing with epistemological issues and uses of history. This session addresses recent attempts to reform the relationship between past and present, now and then, by analyzing different redress processes, public inquiries and rehabilitation policies in the Nordic countries. The issue at stake is the responsibility taken by current governments for the past abusive practices. One clear example of the problematic nature of state responsibility is provided by Antti Malinen who investigates in his paper how, and to which extent, Finnish foster care failings were framed as a matter of public concern during the years 1937–1983, a period of the first child welfare act. Inquiries on historical institutional child abuse have been carried out in all the Nordic countries, but the outcomes differ. Johanna Sköld and Bengt Sandin ask what happens to justice when ‘severe abuse’ is defined in redress processes and how the state takes responsibility for the past policies in Sweden. Jesper Vaczy Kragh presents results from Danish government-commissioned research on historical institutional abuse of both children and adults, and seeks explanations for the Danish government’s reluctance to introduce apologies or redress schemes. Pirjo Markkola and Johanna Oksanen discuss attempts to reform the relationship between past and present by presenting results of the Finnish inquiry. Finally, Astri Andresen will comment on the papers and add the Norwegian perspective in the discussion.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. PhD Antti Malinen (University of Jyväskylä): The failures of public child welfare in Finland, 1940s to 1960s. 
2. Associate Professor Johanna Sköld and Professor Bengt Sandin (Child Studies, Linköping University): Justice lost to history: the “normal” abuse of children in the Swedish financial redress process.
3. PhD Jesper Vaczy Kragh (University of Copenhagen): Reform or status quo? The Danish State, historic abuse and vulnerable groups, 1945-1980. 
4. Professor Pirjo Markkola (University of Tampere) and PhD Candidate Johanna Oksanen (University of Jyväskylä): Redress under construction? Historical inquiry on child abuse and neglect in out-of-home care in Finland, 1937-1983.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Justice lost to history: the “normal” abuse of children in the Swedish financial redress process 

Johanna Sköld, Associate Professor, Child Studies, Linköping University & Bengt Sandin, Professor, Child Studies, Linköping University 

Any political attempt of redressing the past is confronted with the question of which responsibility the present government has for the actions of institutions and governments in the past. One delicate issue concerns whether the present political regime can regret and apologize for past abusive practices considered as accepted at the time of the event, or whether justice is lost to oblivion of history? In the case of redress processes aimed at victims of historical institutional child abuse, the Nordic countries have responded differently. In Denmark, no official apology has been offered with reference to the present society’s inability of taking responsibility for past treatments and notions of children different from current ideas, whereas the Swedish and Norwegian parliaments or governments have apologized to the victims and it is yet to be seen what will happen in Finland. In the case of Norway and Sweden, financial redress schemes have also been established. However, such schemes enact the limits of the present political regime’s responsibility for the past in new ways, in which the uses of history can be critically scrutinized. In order to be awarded by the Swedish redress scheme, claimants had to give reliable evidence of exposure to severe abuse in conjunction with municipal out-of-home care in between 1920-1980. In this paper we focus on the concept “severe abuse”, since the legal documents guiding the so-called Financial Redress Board defined it in relation to what could be considered “normal” childrearing in the past. This definition suggest that no care leaver should be awarded for being a victim of abusive practices that were considered to be normal at the time of the event. What kinds of abusive practices at which point in time are considered to be “normal” by the Financial Redress Board? Moreover, what kinds of historical knowledge underpins the definition of “normality”, which in turn guide the decisions of the Redress Board?

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Reform or status quo? The Danish State, historic abuse and vulnerable groups, 1945-1980 

Jesper Vaczy Kragh, PhD, CoRe, University of Copenhagen

Stories of historic abuse in Danish orphanages and in institutions for mentally disabled children and adults made headlines in 2011 and 2012. As a consequence of this press coverage, the Danish Ministry of Social Affairs decided to grant funds for a social history project, covering the period 1945 to 1980. After a call for proposals, a research group based at Svendborg Museum was selected to conduct the study. The initial aim of the project was to document, collect and disseminate knowledge about socially marginalised groups (primarily care leavers, psychiatric patients, and mentally disabled children). An important part of the project involved the collation of eyewitness account from people who experienced institutions and homes for vulnerable groups. Eyewitness reports were collated through life-history interviews, focus-group interviews, witness seminars and narrative workshops. This approach was combined with studies of archival sources and published documents. A wide range of different life experiences were reported by Danes who had been in care during the period 1945 to 1980. A number of these dealt with abuse in state institutions. The accounts on historic abuse raise important questions not only about how historians should assess oral sources, but also about how the state addresses accusations from people who were placed in care. In contrary to other Nordic countries, Denmark has rejected compensation or redress schemes for care leavers. This paper will discuss the results of the Social history project and possible explanations for the dissimilarities between Denmark and other Nordic countries.

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Redress under construction? Historical inquiry on child abuse and neglect in out-of-home care in Finland, 1937–1983 

Pirjo Markkola, Professor, University of Tampere & Johanna Oksanen, PhD Candidate, University of Jyväskylä 

Abused and neglected children got their voice heard in 2016 when the report of the historical inquiry on child abuse and neglect in child protection institutions and foster homes in Finland was published (Hytönen et al, 2016). The inquiry was initiated by Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, and University of Jyväskylä was contracted to carry out the study. Altogether 299 oral, qualitative interviews were conducted. The inquiry aimed at identifying all forms of historic abuse in out-of-home care. One of the outspoken aims was to learn from the past and to find solutions to prevent and intervene into such misconduct in the future, i.e. to reform child welfare practices. Many inquiries reveal an obvious link between past, present and future both on personal and societal level. The Finnish inquiry reports continuous personal shame and severe social consequences of former out-ofhome care. Several care-leavers witnessed not only in an attempt to cope with their trauma but also because they wanted to help contemporary children. The interviewees expressed four major needs for redress: 1) Official apology; 2) Financial compensation; 3) Improvements in child welfare policies; and 4) Peer support. So far, the state has promised to take the results seriously. Some improvements in child welfare practices are on the agenda, and resources for preventive measures have been allocated. Decisions on other forms of redress, such as a public apology ceremony and financial compensations are still missing. Redress policies in other Nordic countries are well known in Finland, but the road taken remains to be seen. (Hytönen, Kirsi-Maria, Antti Malinen, Paula Salenius, Janne Haikari, Pirjo Markkola, Marjo Kuronen och Johanna Koivisto (2016) Missförhållanden och vanvård av barn inom barnskyddets vård utom hemmet 1937–1983. Helsingfors: Social-och hälsovårdsministeriet.)

ABSTRACT. Att besöka muséer och miljöer av kulturhistorisk karaktär är populärt såväl inom skolan som för en intresserad allmänhet. Ofta ingår en pedagogisk aktivitet av något slag, som exempelvis att boka ett specifikt skolprogram eller att följa med på en guidad visning. Sessionen skall behandla historiedidaktiska aspekter av sådana musei- och kulturarvspedagogiska verksamheter.

Sessionen presenterar tre självständiga fältstudier som undersöker kulturhistoriska muséers och miljöers didaktiska aspekter i relation till skolans historieundervisning och utbildningsuppdrag, samt till kulturarvssektorn och en kulturarvsintresserad allmänhet. I studierna följer forskarna med på pedagogiska program och guidade visningar. Metoderna för datainsamling är observationer och intervjuer. Studiernas centrala historiedidaktiska forskningsfrågor fokuserar bland annat (1) formen, hur- och när-frågorna, (2) innehållet, vad-frågan, (3) urval, varför-frågan, och (4) museibesökens lärandeutfall.

I Margit Eva Jensens fallstudie ingår en mellanstadieklass (år 6) som hon följer läsåret 2016-2017. Jensens forskning fokuserar sammanhangen i historieundervisningen, från skolans klassrum till museet och tillbaka till skolan. Utifrån ett elevperspektiv undersöker studien vilka lärandeutfall – generic learning outcomes – ett museibesök kan resultera i när det förstås som en integrerad del av skolans historieundervisning.

Madeleine Larssons studie är avgränsad till vad som händer i den pågående undervisningssituationen när gymnasieklasser besöker kulturhistoriska muséer. Olika klasser från varierande program och geografiska områden följs. Studien genomförs på fyra muséer av olika karaktärer, men som alla erbjuder visningsteman med relevans för ämnesplanen i historia. Utifrån interaktionen mellan museipedagoger, gymnasielärare och gymnasieelever dokumenterar och analyserar studien visningarnas form, innehåll och urval.

Visningsmomentet är centralt även i David Ludvigssons studie som fokuserar på hur och vad guider visar i kulturhistoriska miljöer. Studien undersöker även guideverksamhetens organisation och försök till professionalisering av yrkesgruppen. Resultaten som presenteras ingår i forskningsprojektet ”Guiderna och kulturarvssektorn” som är en studie som undersöker guider i den svenska historiekulturen.

PRÆSENTATIONER:

1. Margit Eva Jensen (Aarhus Universitet, Danmark): Skole – Elev – Museum: Elevers læring i historie i mødet mellem klasseværelse og det kulturhistoriske museum
2. Madeleine Larsson (Linköpings universitet, Sverige): Historieundervisning på muséer: en studie om den pågående undervisningssituationens kommunikativa och performativa inslag
3. David Ludvigsson (Linköpings universitet, Sverige): Guider i den svenska historiekulturen

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS: 

Skole – Elev – Museum: Elevers læring i historie i mødet mellem klasseværelse og det kulturhistoriske museum 
Margit Eva Jensen, lektor og ph.d.-stipendiat 

I et elevperspektiv er det interessant, at 60% af danske unge havde været på museum indenfor et halvt år, og at majoriteten (63-74%) mente at de havde lært noget. (Kobbernagel 2015). I mit projekt undersøger og dokumenter jeg elevers mulige læringsudbytte af et museumsbesøg ved at se besøget i sammenhæng med klasseundervisning i skolen. Spørgsmålet er: Hvor står elevens læring i mødet mellem museernes formidlingsforpligtelse og skolens læringsdagsorden? Den forskningsstrategi jeg vælger er det kvalitative casestudy baseret på et feltarbejde. I skoleåret 2016-2017 følger jeg al historieundervisning i 6a i Forstadsskolen. I klassens årsplan for historie indgår to forløb, hvor et museum indgår som en integreret del af undervisningen; men jeg har valgt at følge alle undervisningsforløb for at se museumsforløbene i sammenhæng med hele årets historieundervisning. Mål for projektet er at dokumentere ny viden om elevers mulige læringsudbytte i skiftet mellem skole -museum-skole med henblik på at synliggøre denne læring for eleven selv og for læreren. Min forståelse af læringsudbytte ved museumsbesøg er informeret af HooperGreehills (2007) og Thorhauges (2014 og 2015) arbejde med Generic Learning Outcome, samt af historiedidaktiske diskussioner om vurdering (Körber & Meyer-Hamme 2015, Boxtel, Grever & Klein, 2015 ). Publikums studier (John Falk 2011) og didaktisk litteratur om at anvende konkrete genstande i undervisningen indgår ligeledes i mine undersøgelser. (Achiam 2014, Seixas 2012, Floris 1996).

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Historieundervisning på muséer: en studie om den pågående undervisningssituationens kommunikativa och performativa inslag
Madeleine Larsson, doktorand 

Vad är det som händer i undervisningssituationer i historiska muséer? Kan deltagande observationer som datainsamlingsmetod resultera i nya kunskaper om historiedidaktiska möten på museer, och i så fall, vilken sorts kunskap? Dessa två problemformuleringar utgör utgångspunkten i mitt pågående avhandlingsprojekt. Studiens empiriinsamling pågår under hösten 2016 och våren 2017 och genomförs på fyra svenska muséer med varierad kulturhistorisk inriktning, organisationsform och geografisk placering. Den gemensamma nämnaren utgörs av visningarnas tematik. Konferensbidraget kommer att presentera några preliminära tolkningar och analyser av empirin. Studiens syfte är att åskådliggöra den pågående undervisningssituationen i en museimiljö med en kulturhistorisk inriktning. Som ett resultat av en etnografisk metodansats är de initiala forskningsfrågorna medvetet öppna till sin karaktär, nämligen: 

1. Vilket stoff berörs, vilka narrativ framhålls, vilka perspektiv anläggs, vilka föremål visas och på vilket sätt sker detta? (Vad- och hur-frågorna) 
2. Vilka kommunikativa och performativa inslag utmärker visningarna och interaktionen mellan museipedagoger, gymnasielärare och gymnasieelever? (Hur-, när- och vadfrågorna)
3. Varför görs de urval som görs och varför agerar aktörerna som de gör? (Varförfrågan) 

Sedan 1970-talet har det i svensk museikontext pågått en förändringsprocess där pendeln har rört sig från en samlingsorienterad till en allt mer publikorienterad verksamhet. 2011 genomfördes en skolreform av den svenska skolan. Med reformen blev historia ett gymnasiegemensamt ämne och i ämnesplanen skrivs kulturarvets betydelse för individen fram samt besök vid kulturarvsinstitutioner, däribland muséer. Trots ett artikulerat behov av ett ökat samarbete mellan skola och muséer – i såväl utbildnings- som kulturpolitiska fora – finns det fortfarande få empiriska studier som undersöker vad som händer i undervisningssituationer i historiska muséer.

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Guider i den svenska historiekulturen
David Ludvigsson, biträdande professor 

"Guiderna och kulturarvssektorn" är en studie av historiekulturen i Sverige. Studien analyserar (1) hur guider visar kulturhistoriska miljöer, (2) vad guider talar om när de visar kulturhistoriska miljöer, och (3) hur guider är organiserade. Studien baseras på observationer av guidade visningar i ett stort antal kulturhistoriska miljöer, intervjuer med guider, samt analys av guideföreningars arkivhandlingar. Teoretiskt används begreppen plats, rum, berättelse, identitet och professionalisering. Viktiga resultat: Guider visar kulturmiljöer med hjälp av en specifik guidekompetens. Formmässigt präglas guidade visningar av guidens personliga uttryck, av relativt stor variation i framställningen med inslag av humor, anekdoter, berättelser och korta informationstäta partier, av dialogiska inslag och av en (potentiell) förhandling om guidens auktoritet. Innehållsligt utmärks guidegenren av att innehållet förankras på platsen där guide och besökare rör sig. Innehållet är mer skiftande än i många andra historiska genrer. Här 3 samsas akademisk, saklig kunskap med mer underhållande inslag. Presentationen i Aalborg kommer främst att inriktas på hur och vad guider visar i kulturhistoriska miljöer. Avseende guiders organisering ska nämnas att det förekom nordiska guidemöten redan under 1970-talet. I Sverige tog organiseringen av guider i föreningar fart under 1980-talet då även den nationella paraplyorganisationen SveGuide tillkom. Guideorganisationerna har arbetat för en professionalisering av guidegruppen och har varit inflytelserika i sitt arbete för längre guideutbildningar. Ambitionen att få erkännande som en specialiserad yrkesgrupp har varit svårare och det är först 2016 som man i Sverige nått fram till en nationell auktorisation av guider. Det stora flertalet guider har guideverksamheten som en bisyssla vilket bidrar till att förklara guidernas ganska svaga ställning på arbetsmarknaden, trots att de är ett välkänt inslag i historiekulturen.

ABSTRACT. I den danske utenrikspolitikkens historie for de første hundre år etter at Norge gikk tapt i 1814, er det forholdet til Tyskland, ikke til Norge og/eller Sverige som står i sentrum. Tilsvarende er forholdet til Sverige hovedsaken for forfatteren av den norske utenrikspolitiske historikken på 1800-tallet, mens Norges relasjoner med Danmark spiller en underordnet rolle. Den historiografiske stedmoderligheten i behandlingen av forholdet mellom de to tidligere tvillingnasjoner er uheldig fordi den vanligere konsentrasjonen til henholdsvis det dansk-tyske og det norsk-britiske sikkerhetsforholdet gjør at man overser hvordan den liberale varianten av skandinavismen på 1800-tallet hadde potensial i seg til å svekke kongemakten både i København og i Stockholm og derved kunne ha fått stor betydning til forholdet til stormaktene. Mangelen blir forsterket av at den liberale skandinavismens potensielle (og kontrafaktiske) politiske potensialet heller ikke blir tatt riktig på alvor i den historiefaglige litteraturen om om skandinavismens historie. Hensikten med sesjon er å rette opp dette misforholdet ved å fokusere på de to tidligere tvillingrikers utenrikspolitikk etter adskillelsen i 1814. Dessuten skal de tre innlegg danne utgangspunktet for en fornyende kritikk mot den tradisjonelle danske og den norske utenrikspolitiske historieforskningens underkommunisering av folkeretten og overvurdering av den alliansepolitikken som, siden 1949, har vært framstilt som naturlig, nødvendig og uunngåelig fundament for de to lands utenrikspolitikk. Endelig skal sesjonen sette under debatt folkerettens betydning i internasjonal politikk, særlig i forholdet mellom stormaktene og småstatene, og spesielt i forhold til spørsmålet om hvordan Skandinavia utviklet seg fra en krigsregion inntil 1814, inntil et «pluralistisk sikkerhetsfellesskap» hvor krig var utenkelig som konfliktløsningsmiddel i interessekonflikter. Ett paper skal argumentere for at folkeretten var fundamentet for Norges utenrikspolitiske agering allerede i unionstiden med Sverige. Ett paper diskuterer Danmarks folkerettsengasjement i mellomkrigstiden. Ett paper tar for seg den dansk-norske Grønland-konflikten med fokus på folkeretten som utenrikspolitisk konfliktløsningsmiddel.

OPLÆG:

1. Roald Berg (Universitetet i Stavanger, Norge): Folkeretten i norsk utenrikspolitikk 1855-1949
2. Karen Gram-Skjoldager (Aarhus Universitet, Danmark): Civilizing Missions: Internationalism and International Law in Danish Foreign Policy 1918-1945
3. Ole Jone Eide (Universitetet i Stavanger, Norge): Det store dansk-norske slagsmål. Folkeretten og Grønland-spørsmålet

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Roald Berg: Folkeretten i norsk utenrikspolitikk 1855-1949. 

Novembertraktaten i 1855 kan defineres som det formative startpunktet for en norsk sikkerhetspolitikk ved at denne traktaten mellom De forente riker Norge og Sverige og Storbitannia og Frankrike, var formaliseringen av den norske nasjonale engelsk-russiske trussel- og garantiforestillingen, som ble til i det omorganiserte europeiske statssystemet etter Wien-kongressen. I 1949 ble denne samme nasjonale trussel- og garantiforestilling sementert i NATO-traktaten (med USA i rollen som garantist). Fra et maktpolitisk og tradisjonelt «realistisk» perspektiv er både Novembertraktaten og NATO-traktaten uttrykk for maktpolitiske løsninger på militære utfordringer, og Olav Riste, norsk sikkerhetspolitikks «founding father», har generelt betraktet folkeretten som sminke over de maktpolitiske realiteter. Til grunn for min framstilling av norsk utenrikspolitikk etter 18147 ligger den motsatte forutsetning, nemlig at folkerettslige avtaler er de viktigste realiteter i internasjonal politikk, og at Norges utenrikspolitikks hovedvirkemiddel er mellomfolkelige avtaler både i sikkerhetspolitikken og i handelspolitikk. Paperet vil diskutere hvordan konflikter og interessemotsetninger mellom Norge og andre stater ble regulert i avtaler der den norske regjering var en aktiv part. De nevnte sikkerhetspolitiske traktatene vil være henholdsvis utgangspunkt og avslutningspunkt, men hovedinteressen er knyttet til den diplomatiske og juridiske forhistorie og utformingen av Spitsbergen-/Svalbard-traktaten av 1920.

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Karen Gram-Skjoldager, lektor, ph.d., Aarhus Universitet: Civilizing Missions – Internationalisme og international ret i dansk udenrigspolitik 1918-1945. 

Slutningen på Første Verdenskrig markerede gennembruddet for en tendens, der kom til at forme dansk udenrigspolitik hele vejen op gennem det 20. århundrede, nemlig ideen om, at Danmark havde en særlig evne og forpligtelse til at fremme en fredelig international retsorden. Før Første Verdenskrig havde denne ide fået sit første forsigtige udtryk, da Danmark stillede sig i spidsen for den internationale voldgiftsbevægelse, men efter verdenskrigen skabe Folkeforbundet en ny, bred multilateral arena for promoveringen af folkeretlige ideer og principper. Formålet med dette paper er at afdække de antagelser og ideer om international politik, der lå bag folkerettens centrale position i dansk udenrigspolitik og Danmarks centrale placering i den internationale folkeretspolitiske arbejde i mellemkrigen, herunder ikke mindst de internationalistiske forestillinger om småstaterne – især de skandinaviske småstater – som særligt moralsk overlegne aktører, der kunne og burde vejlede større, mere aggressive og aktivistiske stater i retning af mere civiliserede internationale sameksistensformer. Gennem en kortlægning af disse ideer og en beskrivelse af, hvordan de blev omsat i konkret udenrigspolitisk praksis, vil paperet diskutere folkerettens betydning og rolle i dansk udenrigspolitik i første halvdel af det 20. århundrede.

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Ole Jone Eide: Det store dansk-norske slagsmål. Folkeretten og Grønland-spørsmålet. 

I paperet vises det hvordan den folkerettslige ekspertisen, spesielt fra norsk side, opererte i de siste årene fram mot avgjørelsen av saken i Haag i 1933. Dette innebar for det første argumentasjon gjennom publisering av blant annet en doktoravhandling. Her trakk den norske juristen Gustav Smedal linjer tilbake til Berlinkonferansen i 1884/85 og prinsippet om effektiv okkupasjon. Den danske juristen Knud Berlin anmeldte avhandlingen i avisen Nationaltidende. De norske folkerettsekspertene viste også handlekraft i det praktiske liv ved å være sterkt delaktige i okkupasjonen av Øst-Grønland i 1931. Området ble kalt Eirik Raudes land, trolig inspirert av det pressen i samtiden kalte den «nationale gjendøpertrang», og som hadde vært medvirkende til at øygruppen Spitsbergen fikk navnet Svalbard noen år tidligere. Okkupasjonen medførte at Danmark brakte saken inn for domstolen i Haag. At begge land lot saken bli avgjort ved denne domstolen viser disse landenes vektlegging av folkerettens rolle som regulator i slike interessekonflikter.

ABSTRACT. Few international movements have reformed ideological beliefs more than the post-war LGBTQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer) movements. The Nordic countries have been at the forefront, and have also developed a specific model of LGBTQ-rights politics, with registered partnership and inclusive transgender politics. Denmark was often first. It was in Denmark that world famous transsexuals as Lili Elbe and Christine Jorgensen appeared, and Denmark was first with a the law on registered partnership. All Nordic countries, however, have been first with some aspect of this reform process. Finland had the first head of state who had been chair of a national LGBTQ organisation; Iceland had the first prime minister who was actually a lesbian; Norway was first with a law against discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation, and Sweden was first to legislate about sex reassignment for transsexuals. The first paper explores transnational challenges and intra-Nordic dynamics of the homophile, gay/lesbian and queer movements from 1948 until today. Which tensions were there? What sources of inspiration did they have? Peter Edelberg will present the fascinating dynamics of a movement that succeeded tin reshaping the world. The second paper presents the Norwegian lesbian feminist movement of the 1970s. This movement, caught between the feminist movement and the male-dominated gay and lesbian movement presented new alternatives. Tone Hellesund will present how they formed new discourses of bodies, genders and sexualities. The third paper will investigate the more recent transgender turn. The trans- and intergender movement presents new challenges to society and to the LBGTQ movement. Jens Rydström will show how the transgender turn has influenced both the LGBTQ movement and society at large. Together, the three papers will provide grounds for further discussions of the redefinition and reformation of the ways we look at sexuality and gender in the Nordic countries.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Peter Edelberg (University of Copenhagen, Denmark): Trans-National Homosexual Strategies in Scandinavia 1948-2000
2. Tone Hellesund (University of Bergen, Norway): “The only solution: Lesbian ecofeminism” Lesbian radical feminists in Norway in the 1970s and 1980s
3. Jens Rydström (Lund University, Sweden): The trans turn: Queer Activism in the Twenty-First century

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Peter Edelberg, Saxo-Instituttet Københavns Universitet: Trans-National Homosexual Strategies in Scandinavia 1948-2000 

Activists and scholars often argue that the homophile movement of the 1950s was focused on respectability and assimilation, in stark contrast to the gay and lesbian movement of the 1970s that emphasized radical solutions, even revolutions, and anti-bourgeois lifestyles. However, very little empirical research has been done on this topic in Scandinavia, and mostly the narrative seems borrowed from an American context where the Stonewall Riots of 1969 were the tipping point from respectability to radicalism. This paper will present a pilot study into the archives of the Association of 1948 – the Danish Homosexual Organization - and the Danish Gay Liberation Front (and perhaps the Lesbian Front), and test the hypothesis of a transition from respectability to radicalism. What were the stated goals of The Association of 1948 from 1948 through 2000, and how did the stated goals of the Gay Liberation Front differ from those? How did their goals develop, and if there was a radical phase in the 1970s, when did radicalism come to an end? Furthermore this paper will argue for further research into a Danish and Scandinavian queer history that questions the import of American narratives of revolutions and reformations, and establishes new narratives that respect the context of welfare states, secularism, and liberalmindedness. The fundamental differences between the American and the Scandinavian social systems are rarely taken into account, when discussing the differences with regards to inclusion and acceptance of LGBT people. Recent research into the dynamics of the welfare state will take us a long way in understanding the peculiarities of LGBT life and politics in Scandinavia.

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Tone Hellesund AHKR University of Bergen: “The only solution: Lesbian ecofeminism” Lesbian radical feminists in Norway in the 1970s and 1980s 

Sociologist Steven Seidman argues that the current LGBT movements have pursued a politic of “citizenship aimed at civic inclusion by means of gaining equal rights and normalizing or purifying a gay identity” (Seidman 2001:321). However, there is also a history of more willfull subjects (Ahmed 2014), of disruptions, of conflicting positions, cultural negotiations, and power struggles behind the seemingly “naturalness” of the current politics. One of the interesting groups in this regard was the lesbian radical feminist movement of the 1970s and 1980s. They did not feel that the mainstream gay and lesbian organizations took women’s needs into consideration, but rather that it was an environment of hostility towards feminists (and maybe also towards women in general). On the other hand they felt ostracized in the feminist movement where many of the members were distancing themselves from the lesbians in fear of being associated with, as individuals or as a movement, of being “ugly man-hating lesbians”. The paper will outline the rise and fall of the lesbian radical feminist movement, and discuss the culture, politics and identity formation among this group. Who where they, and what kind of activities and communities did they take part in? Which lesbian-feminist discourses of bodies, genders, and sexualities were formulated through the 1970s and 1980s? The project originates from the work of establishing Skeivt arkiv, a queer historical archive at the University Library of Bergen. The presentation will also briefly present the archive.

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Jens Rydström, Department of Gender Studies, Lund University: The trans turn: Queer Activism in the Twenty-First century 

From the 1970s the gay/lesbian liberation movement experienced unprecedented social and political success. In the long run it modified legislation, influenced top-level political agendas, and even reconstructed the very notion of sexuality. In that process, it cleaned out the nineteenth-century idea of a third sex, and insisted that homosexuality concerned only sexuality, not gender. Gay men were not effeminate and lesbians were not mannish – to claim such a thing would be to reproduce old prejudice. U.S. anthropologist David Valentine (2007) argues that this conceptual revolution created a vacuum which made it possible for transgendered people to form new identities. A new identity-building transgender movement insisted that transsexualism concerned gender, not sexuality. There were heterosexual transsexuals, and homosexual transsexuals, and what mattered was their gender expression. The new trans movement was organised around discretion and self help, just like the pre-1970s homosexual organisations, but in the 1990s the emergence of queer theory blurred the picture with its decisive influence on gender and sexuality studies. From the first decade of the 21st century, queer and transgender activists have come out of the closet and challenged the established movements, and we now witness an explosion of transgender and intergender identities and experiences. How are we to understand this new turn in LGBTQ activism, and indeed in popular discourse? Why are suddenly so many transgender, transsexual, and intersexual persons demanding their rights? What are the lines of conflict within the LGBTQ movement and between the new transgender movement and an older generation of lesbian and gay activists? Will this new generation of activists succeed in redefining the very basis of nonheterosexual conceptualisation? The paper will present some preliminary findings based on the LGBTQ movements’ membership publications and interviews with transgender and LGBTQ activists in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.

ABSTRACT. (Individual paper)

In Japan, publicity for things Finnish – design, lifestyles, nature, tourism – has leaped to a state of a fashion in the 2000s, dubbed ‘Finland Boom’ in Japanese media. Unique in Finland’s bilateral relations, the phenomenon has been welcomed as an exceptional breakthrough and a commercial asset, but the root causes of the ‘Boom’ remain unidentified. Far too often a crucial factor behind Finland’s visibility in Japan is overlooked: The Finnish government’s intentional, target-oriented image management, conducted systematically since the early Cold War.

In the aftermath of WWII, Finland’s foreign administration was forced to reform its ‘international information’ and to redefine the themes in which Finland was portrayed outward. From Helsinki to the field, a new ‘image policy’ emerged, penetrating Finland’s foreign representations network. Since its opening in the 1960s, thus also the Finnish embassy in Tokyo came to implement the updated, governmentally curated official autostereotype.

A ‘New Role Model’ for Finland was launched to promote modernity, industrialization, urbanization and architecture, functional design, social welfare and education, together with Finland’s key foreign policy concept, neutrality. These were to replace the pre-war perceptions of Finland as agrarian, nationalistic, backward and peripheral. As can be read in Finnish diplomats’ reports from Tokyo at the time, certain aspects of the message were received better than others, while implementation of the image policy proceeded through trial and error, contested or affirmed by Japanese xenostereotypes.

With Finnish and Japanese diplomatic archives and media as its sources, this study asks, what has been the role of Finland’s governmental representatives in producing perceptions of Finland in Japan? As a hypothesis it argues that, Finland’s currently strong nation brand there builds in actuality on decades of intentional image management: Is not the Japanese ‘Finland Boom’ indeed evidence of the impact of the changing national imaging?

ABSTRACT. Impact of tourism on local residents has been the subject of numerous studies over time, normally with a negative tone. At the same time, the reciprocity between tourists and local residents has been seen as a more or less necessity for tourists to be confronted with in an effort to understand the local environment and its inhabitants. Authenticity is, however, not always authentic but replicated and often staged. For tourists, it is difficult to be aware of that and if they do, many tourists accept it anyway. This gives possibilities for forces within or outside the political administration to manipulate the tourists in a desired way by selecting a culture heritage that underpins the branding of the destination. The idea is to use the tourists´ interest for identity and heritage to promote the pride of local residents of their history but also for manipulating a support for the existent regime. The tourists are exposed for a “show-room” which also is directed to local residents. A skillful manipulation strengthens sentiments favorable for the rulers. This process is often called heritagization. The concept of heritagization is a biased process for promoting a desired image of a cultural heritage by deliberately recycle or repurpose culture heritage in order to make tourists and local residents support certain aims, often political ones. This paper analyzes this role of heritagization by studying in three different places: German culture heritage in Polish Western Pomerania, Hungarian culture heritage in Romanian Cluj-Napoca and the celebration in Sweden of All Saints Day and Halloween at the same time. It has been done in cooperation with the Regional Museum in Koszalin, the Babeş-Bolyai University in 2014 in Cluj-Napoca and on material from the national Swedish ethnographic museum and from the Swedish Church.

ABSTRACT. In the literature on the Soviet Baltic republics’ path to independence, Sweden is, together with Finland, usually depicted as one of the more cautious Western players. Due to concerns about the credibility of Sweden’s neutrality doctrine and the uncertain outcome of the Balts’ radical demands vis-à-vis Moscow, the Swedish government indeed remained rather passive and avoided any clear commitment to the Baltic cause. Underneath the level of Swedish-Soviet diplomatic relations, however, a whole new infrastructure of informal cooperation in the fields of economic, cultural and environmental issues developed between Sweden and its Baltic neighbours years before the USSR eventually disintegrated. These early networking processes built lasting bridges across the Baltic Sea with considerable consequences for Sweden and the transforming post-Soviet Baltic societies alike. The presentation focuses on the role of Swedish enterprises, trade organizations and management schools in the process of the Baltic economies’ turn towards market-economy practices and their gradual integration into Western trade and business environments from 1988 onwards. The Baltic republics’ developing networks with Swedish investors and economists, which to a large degree were orchestrated and coordinated by Swedes with Baltic roots, played a key role in the process of implementing an increasingly radical pro-market agenda. Unrestricted by diplomatic constraints, Swedish entrepreneurs, investors and advisors established numerous links to the evolving Baltic business environment, which was promoted as a bridge to the vast Soviet market. The Nordic connection facilitated the early transfer of market economy thinking and practices and kicked off a long-term rearrangement of economic linkages across the Baltic Sea, securing Sweden’s dominant economic position in the region for decades to come. Taking into account this transnational cooperation contributes to a new understanding not only of the post-Soviet economic transformation, but also of the emergence of a new regional economic order that accompanied the geopolitical changes.

ABSTRACT. Øst- og Centraleuropa havde en lang historie som turistmål for skandinaviske turister inden Anden Verdenskrig gjorde en ende på turisttrafikken. Efter freden oplevede flere destinationer en kortvarig genopblomstring indtil den kolde krig satte en stop for mobiliteten mellem Øst og Vest omkring 1947–48. Stoppet blev dog kortvarigt. Få uger efter Stalins død forhandledes der om en genåbning af Østeuropa for vestlige turister og fra 1955 og frem til kommunismens fald blev den Sovjet-kontrollerede del af Europa langsomt integreret i den internationale turistindustri. Baseret på studier af regeringsarkiver, virksomhedsarkiver, guidebøger og oral history interviews med skandinaviske turister i den kolde krigs Østeuropa opviser paperet to delresultater af et større forskningsprojekt om Skandinavisk turisme i Østeuropa. Først analyseres de Sovjet-kontrollerede turistattraktioners rolle i den Skandinaviske rejsekultur. Her påvises det hvordan de politiske overtoner ved rejser bag jerntæppet aftog efterhånden som især Rumænien og Bulgarien forsøgte at konkurrere med Spanien, Italien og Grækenland om de skandinaviske charterturisters gunst. Herefter analyseres de bilaterale forhandlinger om turistaftaler mellem Skandinavien og Øststaterne. Denne delanalyse demonstrerer igen hvordan økonomien fra 1970erne overtrumfede ideologiske reservationer mod uønskede påvirkninger fra vest. Samlet set bidrager paperet til en forståelse af turismens rolle i den kolde krigs kulturhistorie.

ABSTRACT. I kjølvannet av freden i Augsburg 1555 og avslutningen av Tridentinerkonsilet i 1563 gikk det religiøse skisma i Europa inn i en ny fase. Den etterfølgende perioden blir innenfor de protestantiske landene gjerne kalt for den andre reformasjon der stikkordene dogmatikk, konfesjonalisering og ortodoksi står sentralt. Den Lutherske ortodoksiens kjernetid i de nordiske landene er 1600-tallet med linjer både til siste del av 1500-tallet og deler av 1700-tallet. Den religiøse innstramning rettet seg ikke bare mot den romerske-katolske kirken, men i tillegg mot den reformerte kristendomsretningen, ofte stemplet som kryptokalvinister. I tillegg til konfesjonelle motsetninger betydde den ortodokse Lutherdommen en slags offensiv indremisjon overfor befolkning der disiplinering gjennom strenge morallover var ett av flere tiltak. Gjennom bidrag fra flere nordiske land ønsker sesjonen å sette fokus på hvilken rolle og hvilke uttrykksformer den Lutherske ortodoksien fikk i de nordiske landene. Her er det opplagt flere fellestrekk, men også klare skillelinjer. Innenfor den dansk dominerte fyrstestaten, som på 1600-tallet omfattet både hovedlandet Danmark, Island, tyske hertugdømmer og Norge, kommer sosialdisiplineringen gjennom 1617 forordningene til å stå sentralt i flere av sesjonspresentasjonene. 1617 forordningene kom ut i forbindelse med jubelfesten for offentliggjørelsen av Martin Luthers 95 teser mot pavekirken i 1517. I Sverige-Finland opplevde man en lignende jubelfest med strøm av påbud og lover, men her følger utviklingen av den Lutherske ortodoksien en noe annen kronologi og dynamikk, preget av den dynastiske konflikt med Polen. Også i Sverige fikk man en «renlärighetsstadga» 1617, men den hadde ikke med noe jubileum å gjøre. Dette ble først feiret i 1621 og var knyttet til kulten rundt Gustav Vasa. Med sitt sterke fokus på ortodoksiens kanonisering og evangelisk-luthersk rettroenhet gjennom 1617 forordningen ønsker halvdagssesjonen blant annet å kaste lys over sammenhengen mellom jubelmarkeringer og uttrykksformer for disiplinering av den nordiske befolkningen.

OPLÆG:

1. Morten Fink-Jensen (lektor, Saxo-Instituttet, Københavns Universitet): Den lutherske ortodoksi – et udtryk for ortodoksi i nordisk historieforskning? 
2. Louise Nyholm Kallestrup (lektor, Institut for Historie, Syddansk Universitet): Frygten for Guds vrede. Lensmænd og trolddomsforfølgelser i Danmark. 
3. Martin Kjellgren, Institutionen för pedagogik och didaktik, Stockholms Universitet: «Natursens lönlighe werkande»: Magia naturalis och evangelisk renlärighetsnit i en svensk kontext. 
4. Rune Blix Hagen (førsteamanuensis, institutt for historie og religionsvitenskap, UiT Norges arktiske universitet): Katekismesangene hos Petter Dass (1646-1707) – Norsk protestantisk demonologi i verseform.

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Morten Fink-Jensen: Den lutherske ortodoksi – et udtryk for ortodoksi i nordisk historieforskning? 

Få perioder eller historiske betegnelser i nordisk historie er omgærdet af en så entydig negativitet som 1600-tallets lutherske ortodoksi. Historikere karakteriserer den ofte ved hårdhændet disciplinering af befolkningen og ved et goldt og forhærdet ånds- og kirkeliv, stivnet i formelle læresystemer og uden forbindelse til eller forståelse for det levede liv. Mange eksempler kan vise, at det ikke er helt forkert. Men er denne tolkning af ortodoksien alligevel blevet til en kliché, som ukritisk gentages igen og igen i forskningen.? Har historikere og teologer simpelthen skabt sin egen ortodoksi om 1600- tallet, hvor ingen stiller spørgsmålstegn ved den vedtagne lære? Det er et forskningsmæssigt problem, hvis det stivnede billede af ortodoksien nærmest per automatik fører til, at muligheden for pluralitet, mangfoldighed og forhandling i 1600- tallets religiøse eller idéhistoriske verden afvises. I et videre og ikke mindre vigtigt perspektiv har dette ortodokse syn på ortodoksien konsekvenser for synet på religiøs kultur og kirkehistorie i 1500-tallet og 1700-tallet. I komparation med ortodoksien vurderes disse perioder ofte mere positivt. For det første gør ortodoksien det lettere at fremstille reformationen, også den politisk gennemtrumfede fyrstereformation, som en bevægelse med folkelig forankring. For det andet blev filippismen eller kryptocalvinismen undertrykt af ortodoksien og fremstilles derfor ofte som en slags progressiv eller liberal bevægelse. For det tredje kan pietismen i 1700-tallet tage sig ud som en fremskridtsbevægelse, der frelste samfundene for ortodoksien i oplysningstidens århundrede. Dette paper ønsker at stille skarpt på, hvorvidt dette stivnede syn på ortodoksien gør sig gældende i forskningen og således ikke kun rummer en risiko for at fejlfortolke ortodoksien selv, men også vigtige begivenheder i århundrederne før og efter.

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Louise Nyholm Kallestrup: Frygten for Guds vrede. Lensmænd og trolddomsforfølgelser i Danmark. 

Dette paper undersøger, hvordan idealet om den lutherske fyrste som troens beskytter fik betydning for forfølgelsen af trolddom i Danmark i de første årtier af det 17. århundrede. Det har i det sidste halve århundrede været alment accepteret, at reformationen agerede katalysator for trolddomsforfølgelserne. Ofte har det dog knebet med at finde den direkte forbindelse. Dette paper bygger på en tese om, at Danmark udgør et eksempel på en sådan direkte sammenhæng. Paperet diskuterer, hvorledes idéen om den lutherske fyrste, der havde en ’guddommelig pligt’ til at forfølge troldfolk for at undgå, at Gud kastede sin vrede på hele riget, fusionerede med tidens dæmonologiske idéer og mere generelt med husstandstanken. Sideløbende med at lutherdommen cementeredes i det danske kongerige i begyndelsen af det 17. århundrede tog trolddomsforfølgelserne fart. Ved lutherjubilæet i 1617 udsendtes tre disciplinerende forordninger, en af disse om troldfolk. Forordningen om troldfolk beordrede alle i kronens tjeneste at rejse sager mod mistænkte. Ved at undersøge en række østjyske len, kan det dokumenteres, hvorledes lensmænd tog dette påbud endda særdeles alvorligt. En trolddomssag blev dermed på en gang en måde, hvorpå lensmanden kunne demonstrere, at han ikke tolererede lovovertrædere i sit len, men samtidig en handling, hvorved han udviste lydighed overfor sin konge og dermed kunne undgå Guds vrede.

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Martin Kjellgren ”Natursens lönlighe werkande”: Magia naturalis och evangelisk renlärighetsnit i en svensk kontext 

För den som under det tidiga 1600-talet fördjupade sig i studiet av naturens hemligheter, var det ofta vanskligt att dra en gräns mellan det gudomliga och det djävulska, och mellan det tillåtna och det otillåtna. Begreppet magia naturalis – naturlig magi – var vedertaget och accepterat som en beteckning på en rätt kristlig kunskap om preternaturliga och svårförklarliga fenomen i skapelsen, men inte ens prästerskapet, som hade som sin uppgift att definiera vad som var rätt utifrån de ramar som den rena evangeliska läran gav, kunde alltid särskilja naturlig magi från de demoniska bländverk som härrörde från djävulen och som praktiserades av häxor och trollkarlar. I denna undersökning analyserar jag ett antal utsagor om begreppet ”naturlig magi”, givna av svenska präster och lärda under 1600-talets första decennier. Jag ska försöka visa hur inställningen till den naturliga magin och argumenten för hur den skulle avgränsas kunde skilja sig kraftigt mellan olika författare och olika kontexter. Utifrån denna analys försöker jag bland annat att problematisera bruket av ortodoxibegreppet i modern reformationsforskning, och jag skisserar en möjlig väg att utifrån nya förutsättningar åter börja diskutera reformationsrörelsernas roll för det som med det weberska begreppet entzauberung betecknar de magisk-religiösa världsbildernas synbara deklination i europeiskt tänkande. ”Avförtrollningen” ska alltså inte ses som ett resultat av ”protestantiskt” motstånd mot magiskt tänkande, eller av en linjär utveckling mot det moderna förnuftet, utan som en komplex process som blir synlig först när vi i ett längre tidsperspektiv iakttar olika paradigm som bryts mot varandra. I denna process ska reformationen inte ses som en orsak, men kanske som en nödvändig förutsättning.

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Rune Blix Hagen: Katekismesangene hos Petter Dass (1646-1707) – Norsk protestantisk demonologi i verseform. 

«Du skal og uden ald forskiel Udrydde slet af Land Ald Signe-Folk og Satans Træl, Og hver en Spaadoms Aand.» 

Slik innleder den norske sognepresten Petter Dass (1646-1707) sin diktning over de ti budene i det han kaller Katekismesangene. Det originale med Dass’ religiøse ståsted er at hans teologiske grunnsyn uttrykkes i verseform. På en glimrende måte gir han gjennom flere vers uttrykk for den lutherske ortodoksiens oppfatning av hekser, Satan og den helbredende magien. Petter Dass studerte teologi ved det teologiske fakultetet i København fra 1666 og noen år framover før han overtok ett av de rikeste sognekall i den nordlige delen av Norge. I ettertid har han blitt kjent for sin frodige barokkdiktning om folk og miljø langt mot nord. Sesjonsbidraget vil fokusere på hans religiøse diktning og vise hvordan han faktisk lanserer en protestantisk demonologi i verseform med sine dikteriske oppfatninger av den hvite magiens satanistiske opphav. Kampen mot de kloke folkene og deres ritualer kom til å bli et særtrekk ved den lutherske utgaven av den intellektuelle trolldomslæren. Kjernen i læren gikk ut på at de folkelige helbrederne – såkalte signefolk – med sine ritualer og magiske oppskrifter var farligere enn de svarte og ekte heksene. De kloke folkene kunne lett lokke sine naboer og klienter over i djevelens klør. Deres signerier var et grovt misbruk av Guds hellige ord og navn. Ritualene rundt den magiske helbredelsen kunne tolkes som anrop til mørkets fyrste. Det eksisterte ingen forskjell på skadetrolldom og legetrolldom. Ja, representanter for Luthersk ortodoksi mente at den hvite magien var atskillig verre enn den svarte. Gjennomgangen av Petter Dass’ katekismesanger har som formål å vise at sognepresten har sin forankring i denne Lutherske demonologien.

ABSTRACT. The Reformation is mostly considered and studied as a religious phenomenon, but it had economic consequences as well. For example, in Kingdom of Sweden the tax legislation that directed the collection of tithes changed after the Reformation. The clergy’s (official) income was tied to the tithes, and thus the change affected the personal financial standing of the pastors. By using different types of source material and Gini-coefficient as a tool to assess the economic inequality, the aim of my paper is to study did the Reformation increase the economic inequality amongst the pastors in selected parish of Finnish countryside. The results suggest that the Finnish pastors were rather equal in the early years of the Reformation and remained so during the century. Thus the paper concludes that even though the Reformation (and other events, such as the Russo-Swedish war (1570-1595) and the civil war at the last decade of the century) lowered clergy’s income and wealth, the effect was similar in most of the cases - i.e. the economic inequality amongst the clergy in Finland did not grow during the 16th century.

ABSTRACT. Hur nationsbygget i olika länder förankras folkligt är en understuderad process. Med detta bidrag vill jag ge en inblick hur den gick till i Finland genom att studera ett statyprojekt under den europeiska statyomanins tidevarv som igångsattes för att uppmärksamma Finlands reformator Mikael Agricola. Min forskning knyter därmed an till intresset för såväl nationsbygge som historiebruk.

Jag ställer i främsta rummet frågor kring insamlingen av medel gick till: Hur motiverades insamlingen, till vem riktade man sig, längs vilka kanaler och med vilken framgång? Var det så att man med hjälp av en insamling i kyrkans regi lyckades engagera också personer ur folket? Vilka faktorer förklarar att utfaller blev så olika från en ort till en annan?

Anhållan om att inleda insamlingen hade gjorts av Finlands prästerskap och den beviljades av kejsaren 1865. Anhållan motiverades med biskop Agricolas genomgripande betydelse för reformationen i landet och för det finska språket. Agricolas betydelse som landsfader var obestridlig. Alla församlingar i landet uppmanades att delta och att årligen redovisa insamlingsresultatet. Redovisningar, ibland på individnivå, finns för tidsperioden 1866-1884. Medel insamlades också på annat sätt bl.a. genom en specialskriven bok "Fiskargossen". Placeringsorten var inte från början angiven och detta ledde till en dragkamp mellan städerna Åbo och Viborg. Medelinsamlingen kan också vara intressant att jämföra med andra insamlingar som gjordes vid samma tid.

ABSTRACT. My presentation will show that in the Age of Enlightenment the modernization of national identities took place not only in the debates of the political forums (parliaments, newspapers, pamphlets). The Swedish Lutheran local clergy had a very significant role in this process, as they acted in an intermediary role between the centre and peripheries of the state. Through their sermons clergymen participated in the process of constructing a more modern version of nationalism at a local level.

Earlier studies have demonstrated that changes of political cultures can be recognized in parliamentary and diet –sermons given by higher clergy. However, the role of the clergy was much wider than this as, members of the lower clergy acted as political educators among the common people. My doctoral dissertation focuses on the rise of more modern nationalistic discourses in the Swedish realm and especially on the role of the local clergymen in this process.

The perspective and source material of my research is quite unique in international comparison. I argue that the Swedish and Finnish local clergy changed their political and societal argumentation gradually from biblical models of an Israel-like national community typical of the eighteenth century to more secular models of the national community by the early nineteenth century. I study sermon manuscripts from six different kind of parishes located in the different parts of the realm.

Sermon manuscripts have survived to a unique extent in Finnish and Swedish public archives. Changes in the language of the sermons may not have been as explicit as in certain secular genres but their contribution to shifts in political culture can nevertheless be recognized by comprehensive contextualization and comparison. I shall demonstrate how national identity was conceptually constructed in sermons given by the local clergy in Lutheran contexts.

ABSTRACT. The Nordic welfare states are characterized by a special interpretation of the relationship between individual and society, which emphasizes solidarity and reciprocity. Our starting point is that the “belief in society” as the promise of a brighter future was crucial in welfare state building. With a long-term analysis of lived, local experience, our panel will present a new approach to the formation and legitimation of the social citizenship in a welfare state. By focusing on three turning points in 1850-1980, the panel explores the conceptual construction and practical adaptation of social beliefs, which made the realization of the utopia of welfare possible in Finland. First, we analyse how the existence of society was characterized in the Finnish-speaking culture in the mid-1800s. Secondly, the experience of the inmates of a poorhouse opens a new perspective for the relationship between individual and society during the poor relief-dominated social security in the late nineteenth century. Thirdly, the lived welfare state will be explored as the experience of the municipal authorities and the receivers of the new benefits and services in 1940-1970s. The focus on one country allows us to capture and analyse the long-term changes in the shared experiences of the relationship between individual and society, which are reflected in language and institutionalized in local welfare policy practices. Known as the agrarian latecomer in social security, Finland is an ideal case to study the relationship between citizenship and state, since the country underwent exceptionally radical and rapid societal changes during the late nineteenth and twentieth century.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Heikki Kokko (University of Tampere, Finland): The conceptualized ideas of society in the Finnish-speaking culture in the mid-1800s
2. Johanna Annola (University of Tampere, Finland): Poor relief authorities, individual and society in late 19th-century Finland
3. Minna Harjula (University of Tampere, Finland): “The belief in society” as a lived welfare state practice: Finland 1940-80

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Heikki Kokko: The conceptualized ideas of society in the Finnish-speaking culture in the mid-1800s 

My paper will discuss how the existence of society became characterized in the individual and the local level in the Finnish-speaking culture in the mid-1800s. In the middle of the 19th century, approximately 85% of population of Finland were Finnish-speaking and 14 % Swedish-speaking. Due to the historical development, almost the whole Finnish society worked in Swedish. As the school system, the judiciary and the upper administration worked in Swedish, the social mobility was difficult for the Finnish-speaking population. Due to the situation also the Finnish literal language wasn’t properly developed and the Finnish literal culture was still thin. The majority of Finnish-speaking people lived in the countryside in their local communities and made their living in almost self-sufficient agriculture. In the 1850’s, there was a first rise of the Finnish press. Its peculiar feature was that the readers of the press wrote the significant part of the content of the newspapers. Suddenly there were lots of rural correspondents, who started to write to the publicity everyday things that had happened in their local communities. In that way, they created so called imagined community, which Benedict Anderson has written on. The origin of the imagined community coincided with large-scale reforms, which resulted in municipal government and municipal responsibility for the poor. My presentation will show how the newspaper writers began to conceive this changed situation with the new concepts, which defined new kind of “translocal” relationship between individual and community and which is nowadays used to understand as a society. These articulations of the early Finnish newspaper writers were the articulated linguistic and the theoretical background of the rise of “belief in society” in Finland which for one's part constituted the later social citizenship in a welfare state.

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Johanna Annola: Poor relief authorities, individual and society in late 19th-century Finland 

After the Poor Relief Act of 1879, the Finnish poor relief system underwent a major reform. Firstly, a network of municipal poorhouses was established after the English and Scandinavian models. The poorhouses, known for their harsh conditions and strict discipline, were the only public sector social security system of the time – often criticised by the contemporaries for scaring off would-be-paupers rather than helping them. Secondly, a new kind of state office, the Inspector of Poor Relief, was introduced as the first country in the Northernmost Europe. The Inspector was the highest authority in poor relief, responsible for ensuring that the existing legislation was observed in the municipalities. The previous research has concentrated on the power struggle between the Inspectorate and the local boor relief boards. My paper, however, emphasises the experience of the inmates of a poorhouse. For the inmates, the Inspectorate could serve as a channel for making complaints about the local poor relief board, whose proceedings the inmates often found merciless and arbitrary. I suggest that from the inmates’ point of view, the Inspectorate actually represented “society”, an entity whose power surpassed that of the local poor relief authorities. This setting opens a fresh view on the construction of the relationship between an individual and society.

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Minna Harjula: “The belief in society” as a lived welfare state practice: Finland 1940-80 

The idea of social citizenship in a welfare state became concrete in the local community. The new welfare state institutions and practices changed everyday life by creating new norms and expectations. When maternity and child health clinics, health houses, social offices, health insurance offices and health centres were built in the municipalities, the buildings became the new symbols of society in the local community. By the 1970’s, the institutions of health care and social welfare became established as the cornerstone of Finnish society. In people’s everyday life, the experiences of encountering local authorities and professions of the new institutions were central in the formation of the “belief in society”. The local process during which income security and social services changed from stigmatized poor relief to a collectively provided and accepted social right in Finland will be analysed from two perspectives. First, I will focus on the adaptation of the “belief in society” in the material targeted to and produced by rural municipal officials and persons in municipal positions of trust, who acted as intermediary links between state authorities and the local community, generally embodying reluctance to welfare state reforms in the 1940s and 1950s. Secondly, oral history collections will be utilized to analyse the lived welfare state as the experience of the receivers of the new benefits and services.

ABSTRACT. ”Jeg føler, derfor er jeg”. Således kunne et kendt diktum lyde anno 2017, hvor følelser løftes fra irrationalitetens mørke dyb og tilskrives en stadigt vigtigere rolle som navigationsmarkører i vores hverdag, såvel inden for videnskaben, som i populærkulturen, hvor følelser – ofte ganske ukritisk – anskues som uforanderlige instinkter og udløbere af vort inderste selv, frem for som et sæt kulturelt konstruerede eller kalibrerede praksisser og oplevelser. Med denne session ønsker vi at sætte fokus på relationen mellem følelser og transformation: dels ved at se på, hvordan hverdagslige oplevelser og praksisser tilskrives forskellige følelsesmæssige betydninger i henhold til skiftende diskurser, samt hvordan dette påvirker og former opfattelsen af disse erfaringer. Dels ved at se på, hvordan brud eller transformationsprocesser opleves, italesættes og praktiseres følelsesmæssigt – hvad enten der er tale om kriminalisering, skilsmisse, migration eller byudvikling. Endvidere håber vi at åbne for en bredere diskussion om, hvordan forskellige sociale og kønnede identiteter, og dertil hørende kulturelle normer praktiseres og italesættes i følelsesmæssige termer; hvordan er forskellige følelsespraksisser med til at konstruere, understøtte og udfordre sociale identiteter.

OPLÆG:

1. Bonnie Clementsson (Lund Universitet): Vad spelar känslorna för roll när ett brott har begåtts?

2. Karen Vallgårda, Københavns Universitet: Fra ”skadet Sjæleliv” til ”klump i maven” - Skilte børns følelser i et historisk perspektiv

3. Camilla Schjerning, Odense Bys Museer: Følelsesgeografier og foranderlige byrum i Odense, 1840-1915.

Individuelle abstracts:

Vad spelar känslorna för roll när ett brott har begåtts?

Bonnie Clementsson, Lund Universitet

I alla tider har människor älskat och hatat, skrattat och känt avsky för olika saker. Men trots dessa allmänmänskliga utgångspunkter har betydelsen av känslor och känsloyttringar skiftat över tid. Kulturella normer kring känslor har med andra ord påverkat inte endast människors uppträdande utan även omgivningens reaktion på människors uppträdande och sannolikt även människors egna upplevelser.

      Inom forskningen har man konstaterat att känslornas värde ökade i omfattning i samhället omkring sekelskiftet 1800. Under denna period talades det allt oftare om känslor och både män och kvinnor lät sig röras till tårar av olika känslosamma förnimmelser. Enligt tidigare ideal skulle passioner och starka känslor kontrolleras och styras av förnuftet men nu släpptes känslorna fria. Känslor som empati, medkänsla och kärlek definierades som goda dygder och skulle gärna visas öppet. Dessa kulturella förändringar medförde bland annat att vissa brott kom att uppfattas och bedömas på olika sätt beroende på när de begicks.

      Genom att lyfta fram några exempel av förbjudna kärleksrelationer från tidigt 1700-tal till tidigt 1900-tal vill jag visa dels hur samhällets bedömning av brotten påverkades av kulturella normer kring känslor, dels hur de brottsliga anpassade sitt beteende ­(och eventuellt sin upplevelse) efter samtidens ideal.

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Fra ”skadet Sjæleliv” til ”klump i maven” - Skilte børns følelser i et historisk perspektiv

Karen Vallgårda, Københavns Universitet

Siden begyndelsen af 1900-tallet har der i Danmark været (stigende) fokus på, hvordan en skilsmisse præger børns følelsesliv. Mens Emma Gad i 1918 skrev om, at ødelæggelsen af barndomshjemmets harmoni gennem skilsmisse kunne skade børns ”Sjæleliv”, taler mange praktikere i dag om, at skilsmisser kan medføre mistrivsel og psykiske problemer hos børnene. Med særlig fokus på, hvordan forholdet mellem krop og sind italesættes, skitserer oplægget de skiftende følelsesbegreber, som hhv. voksne og børn har brugt til at karakterisere børns erfaringer i forbindelse med skilsmisse. 

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Følelsesgeografier og foranderlige byrum i Odense, 1840-1915

Camilla Schjerning, Odense Bys Museer

Som mange andre byer gennemgik Odense i tiden mellem 1850 og 1915 en transformation fra købstad til industriby – en transformation som medførte markante ændringer i både byens fysiske og sociale geografier. Dette paper ser nærmere på de forandringer i byens rum, som fulgte med – og ikke mindst, hvordan byens indbyggere oplevede og reagerede på dem. Særligt interesseret er jeg i de følelsespraksisser, som udfoldede sig i mødet mellem mennesker og steder, og hvordan de spillede sammen med forandringen af byrummet. Hvordan blev transformationerne oplevet og beskrevet i ord og billeder? Hvordan brugte forskellige sociale grupper byen til at manifestere skiftende identiteter i form af nybyggerier, ritualer eller sociale aktiviteter i bredere forstand – og ændrede disse praksisser og deres geografier sig i takt med det forandrede byrum, eksempelvis ved at nogle grupper tiltog sig magten til at definere betydningen af bestemte centrale steder og dermed rummenes sociale brug og betydning.

ABSTRACT. År 2016 fyller Sveriges och världens första tryckfrihetsförordning 250 år. År 2020 är det 250 år sedan världens första tryckfrihetslagstiftning utan inskränkningar såg dagens ljus i Danmark.

De bägge nordiska kungarikena var pionjärer i kampen för tryck- och yttrandefrihet, detta trots att de statsrättsliga förutsättningarna var diametralt olika i de bägge länderna. Även tillkomst och utformning av respektive lagstiftning skilde sig kraftigt åt. I Sverige hade frågan om tryckfrihet diskuterats i flera decennier och den utfärdade förordningen var ett utförligt dokument med detaljerade bestämmelser. I Danmark infördes tryckfriheten utan förberedelse genom en kortfattad kabinettsorder. Den intellektuella bakgrunden förefaller att ha varit ungefärligen densamma på båda hållen – men just denna fråga kräver ytterligare belysning.

Tryckfrihetens tidiga utveckling säger mycket väsentligt om 1700-talet som politisk och intellektuell brytningstid. De idéer som traditionellt ansetts ha fötts under franska revolutionen var i själva verket väl utbredda långt dessförinnan; de återfanns i parlamentariska statsskick, som det svenska, och i strikta envälden, som det danska.

I detta rundabordssamtal vill vi bjuda in till ett samtal med nya perspektiv på 1700-talets politiska kultur. De tre sessionsanmälarna har samtliga presenterat aktuell forskning på temat som ger en på flera sätt ny bild av skeendet. Ämnet har vida implikationer och kopplar de nordiska länderna till den stora kontinentala diskussionen om Upplysningen som teori och praktik.

Ambitionen är att med Nordin, Jakobsen och Rian som kärna utöka sessionen med ytterligare 2–3 deltagare. I Finland, Norge, Sverige och Danmark finns flera pågående projekt med anknytning till ämnet. Sessionen begränsas till den tidigaste tryckfrihetsperioden, före år 1800.

ABSTRACT. When the term ”the Northern invasion” was coined by Fernand Braudel in his classic study The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II it aimed to explain the historical process in the sixteenth and seventeenth Mediterranean when the Dutch, the English and the French - thanks to their technological, commercial and political advantage - seized control of maritime life. The panel argue that a similar process, or a second wave, occurred when the Scandinavian merchant fleets and trade networks entered and subsequently expanded in the Mediterranean during the long eighteenth century. The historical process of a “Nordic invasion”, we argue, had a different set of preconditions and implications than the previous centuries, but its effects should not be underestimated. The entry of new states, networks, and agents, transformed or reshaped different commercial and political settings, local and regional, which only recently have begun to be explored by historians.

The contributions by the panel participants share this basic assumption in the case studies presented. The panel will present on-going research at Lund University in Sweden and Åbo Akademi University in Finland and discuss different aspects of the “Nordic invasion” in the long eighteenth century. Based on the aspects of adaptation, confrontation and collaboration, taking place within the Mediterranean maritime world, the panel will explore three case studies: 1) how private enterprises and self-organized networks was a vital part of the “Nordic invasion” and reshaped commercial and diplomatic culture, 2) how Swedish diplomacy tried to transform the Mediterranean ransoming culture 3) how Nathanael Gerhard af Schultén (1750–1825) can be perceived as representative of the Nordic mapping of the Mediterranean in general and North Africa in particular.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Gustaf Fryksén (Lund University, Sweden): George Logie’s “Success”: Entrepreneurial partnership, the practice of international maritime law, and the road to the first Swedish consulate in the Ottoman world, 1725-1731 
2. Joachim Östlund (Lund University, Sweden): The Swedish trade route to the Mediterranean: consuls, captives and reciprocal ransoming agreements in the eighteenth century
3. Emil Kaukonen (Åbo Akademi University, Finland): Nathanael Gerhard af Schultén and the “Scientific invasion” of the Mediterranean in the Long Eighteenth Century

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Gustaf Fryksén: George Logie’s “Success”: Entrepreneurial partnership, the practice of international maritime law, and the road to the first Swedish consulate in the Ottoman world, 1725- 1731. 

In the years 1729, 1736 and 1741, Sweden concluded bilateral treaties with the Ottoman Regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli, and thereby fulfilling the economic policy of the Diet aiming to safeguard Swedish-flagged shipping in the Mediterranean. The treaties also stipulated the conditions for establishing consulates in those ports and the various duties assigned to the appointed consuls. In the subsequent commercial expansion of Swedish shipping throughout the Mediterranean in the course of the 18th century, the consuls undoubtedly contributed in facilitating the expansion process. But beyond the instructions, on commercial and diplomatic duties, the consuls primarily operated through self-organized networks in what can arguably be described as private enterprises, sometimes in cooperation and sometimes in conflict with the interests of the Swedish government or other monopoly holders. The focus in literature has often been set on explaining the activities of the consuls in the perspective of the state and less on the agency of the consuls (or other agents). There is an agreement on that the implementations of trade policies in the Diet was influenced by members of the merchant gentry and ship-owning community. However, the nature of this involvement and the relationship between agents regarding the treaties with the Regencies and the consular appointments has not been fully investigated. On the whole, biographical details and background to as well as information on why certain individuals were recruited as consuls during the period are still scarce in literature. By employing an agency-based and biographical approach (rather than state-centred or institutional), this paper aims to highlight and investigate the background events, relations and circumstances leading to the first treaty with Algiers in 1729 through the lens of the appointed consul, George Logie. After being appointed, he served for nearly thirty years and came to be a central figure in the consular community in the Western Mediterranean. By examining a set of hitherto unmined sources relating to Logie, in different national repositories, it is possible to reconstruct Logie’s road to consulship and analyse the consistency of incentives and disincentives behind the establishment of the first permanent Swedish diplomatic and commercial representation in the Ottoman world.

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Joachim Östlund: The Swedish trade route to the Mediterranean: consuls, captives and reciprocal ransoming agreements in the eighteenth century 

This paper presents the strategies to secure the Swedish trade route to the Mediterranean during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The major threat to the Swedish commercial interests was the so-called Barbary corsairs. To counter this threat the state organized convoys, insurances, a ransoming system, and peace treaties. In different ways the Mediterranean become a testing ground for Swedish diplomacy with its ambition to protect sailors. The challenges that stood out was the problems caused by Swedish sailors taking service under foreign flag, which most often were sailors from the Baltic and German provinces. To control and protect this category of sailors state authorities developed new strategies for a more international model of maritime security. Of special interest is the promotion of the idea of shared responsibility between nations to ransom sailors serving under foreign flag, concluded as “reciprocal ransom agreements”, and issued in 1742. This article analyses the process that resulted in the idea of reciprocal ransoming agreement by connecting the interplay and tensions between state diplomacy and trade, the captivity of sailors in North Africa and the economic networks and knowledge of the consuls. Even if the idea of reciprocal ransoming agreements was short-lived, it shows how state trade, captivity and consular networks interacted and transformed Swedish diplomacy and the protection of the individual in the eighteenth century Mediterranean.

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Emil Kaukonen: Nathanael Gerhard af Schultén and the “Scientific invasion” of the Mediterranean in the Long Eighteenth Century 

In September of 1786 the frigate Diana left the port of Stockholm, under the command of Lieutenant colonel Harald af Christiernin, bound for Morocco to deliver the regular biennial gifts from the King of Sweden to the Emperor of Morocco. On their journey, the crew was instructed in astronomy and navigation by the Professor of the archipelago fleet, Nathanael Gerhard af Schultén (1750–1825), a renowned physicist, mathematician, and astronomer. In his autobiography af Schultén describes his experiences during the journey which took the frigate and her crew from Morocco to Italy and eventually back to Stockholm in July of 1787. The observations that af Schultén made on the journey, which he undertook with great enthusiasm, can be placed into the wider context of international politics and the production of scientific knowledge in the later part of the eighteenth century. Through their observations and analyses, in particular of the cultures and peoples of the Barbary Coast, European and American scientists and travellers took an active part in creating and disseminating knowledge about North African peoples and civilizations vis-à-vis those of Europe. In this sense, af Schultén and his contemporaries were representatives of a kind of “scientific invasion” with the objective to explain and describe the Mediterranean world for a collective European and American public. In this paper, I will contextualize and analyze af Schultén’s journey to Morocco as a representative of the Nordic mapping of the Mediterranean in general and North Africa in particular.

ABSTRACT. When the temperance movement started to campaing for the prohibition of alcoholic drinks in the nineteenth-century Finland, they started to look for historic evidence on Finns’ inability to drink in a civilized, European manner. The concept of ‘the Finnish way of drinking’ (suomalainen viinapää) was constructed in academic research and the temperance movement. According to this at the time popular theory, Finns don’t need as much alcohol as others to become drunk and once intoxicated, they become aggressive and violent. Evidence of this was found especially in the seventeenth-century court records, where temperance-minded historians found cases against priests and lay members of court who tried to take care of their job while heavily intoxicated. The numerous cases in which drinking had led to violence were seen as a warning example. The Prohibition Law was in effect from 1919 to 1932, but the conception of Finns as a nation that consumes and has always consumed alcohol differently than others – in the wrong way – still prevails in Finnish popular culture and academic writing. This paper challenges and deconstructs these ideas by contextualizing the seventeenth-century court cases where the (mis)use of alcoholic beverages was discussed. By putting these court cases in international, historical and legal context this paper gives new insights into the history and historiography of drinking cultures in Finland.

ABSTRACT. In Surveiller et punir Michel Foucault argues that during the Ancien Règime various forms of petty illegalities were part of the everyday functioning of society and formed a “margin of tolerated illegality”, which gradually declined in the 18th century along with the growth of a ‘carceral society’. While the exact chronology and extent of these particular social changes have been subject to contention, many historians agree on the existence of this margin of tolerated illegalities in the pre-industrial world. As microhistorians have pointed out, the notion of such a margin of tolerated illegality emphasises the ambiguity of social and cultural norms in pre-industrial societies, to the ‘normal exceptions’ of everyday life, and views power relations as sites of contention that were continually subject to ‘negotiation’. This paper will discuss this margin of tolerated illegality in Iceland in the 19th century, with particular focus on illegal casual labour, or masterlessness. As in the other Nordic countries, masterlessness (‘lösdriveri’, ‘løsgjengeri’) in Iceland was from the 16th century onwards subject to strict regulation and a hostile public discourse which associated it with criminality, immorality and social disorder. In 1783, an ordinance was enacted which prohibited any form of masterlessness without written permits from the authorities, an exceptionally harsh ordinance which was in effect for 80 years. Nevertheless, masterless labour continued and remained a chronic ‘problem’ in public discourse throughout the 19th century, as Icelandic society and the economy underwent significant changes towards modernization. This paper will analyse the apparent paradox of masterless labour as a reviled form of deviancy while simultaneously being a commonplace feature of daily life, and discuss the impact which such illicit labour practices had on the historical transformation of Icelandic society in the 19th century.

ABSTRACT. This paper will discuss a historical topic that feature in the European historical culture in the 18th- and 19th-centuries, namely that of the medieval and early modern popular uprising. The point of departure will be the diachronic changes and alterations in the textual afterlife of one of these revolts, a peasant uprising called the Club War (1596–97) that took part in the Finnish part of the Swedish realm. The paper will argue that the motif of popular resistance was transnationally significant in the era when the premises of ideological and political citizenship were heatedly debated. Plenty of research on democratic and parliamentary ideas has been done by studying political discourses (newspapers, parliamentary debates) and in the field of intellectual history. However, history writing and historical fiction also participated in and contributed to this discourse, and they had a powerful tool in their ‘toolbox’, namely historical imagination.

These events and their interpretations become particularized and exceptionalized when we study them solely from the national perspective. Thus, the paper will also compare representations of the Club War to those of other similar events, in this case Swedish 14th-and 15th-century revolts, the Engelbrekt´s Uprising and the so-called Dacke Feud. Thus, the concept of ‘long context’ (see e.g. Armitage 2012) as it is used in this article has both diachronic and synchronic trajectories, crossing over temporal milestones constructed by historians (like 1808–09 in regard to Finnish history), textual genres supported by modern disciplinary divides and specific historical events. The paper will claim that only this kind of transtemporal ‘triple comparison’ can reveal the narrative potential inherent in each specific event, and the differing contemporary uses of the same past.

ABSTRACT. Depositions on the British Isles between 1300 and 1700 are pretty well-known and even brought the English a reputation of being „king-slayers“. The depositions in Scandinavian kingdoms, especially Sweden, of the same time are much less known, even though they matched the British depositions in numbers. Even more, combining the depositions of the Union of Kalmar, of the 16th century and the depositions in the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth century makes Sweden European record holder in deposing their monarchs. This raises the question how and why Swedish monarchs lost their throne so easily, and what this meant for the Swedish state-building process. In this proposed paper I am going to analyse how an understanding of having the right to depose their monarchs was formed by the specific political culture, comprised of consensus, broad participation and not divinely legitimized monarchy, in this sparsely populated realm. The focus of my paper will be on the depositions of the sixteenth century, in which the foundations for the modern Swedish kingdom were build, i.e. John II, Christian II, Erik XIV and Sigismund. Comparisons to the depositions during the time of the Union of Kalmar (Eric of Pomerania, twice Charles VIII, Christian I) and the depositions around 1800 (Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf) will be added to further trace the Swedish right of deposition.

ABSTRACT. At least three central Christian tenets were involved – and in conflict – when Christian powers in the middle ages strove to convert and control populations in the Baltic: The command to spread the word of God through mission and baptism (Matthew 28:19-20), the commandment to love God and one’s neighbour (Matthew 22:35-40; Mark 12:28-31) and the bid to turn the other cheek in the face of adversities as a sign of humility and meekness (Matthew 5:39). Whereas the two first tenets could be fairly easily combined – to bring the word of God to people may be interpreted as an act of love – the history of Christianity offers countless examples of difficulties when trying to incorporate also the third of these tenets: Which kind of coercion and what level of violence may be used in order to further the Christian message? What to do with people who were unwilling to accept the Christian message, let alone baptism? The session wishes to investigate ideas and notions of Christian violence and mission that were at play in the medieval North as these are reflected in diplomas, letters and chronicles. With the composition of this session, it is also the aim to highlight change and development in the use of Christian violence. Specifically, the session deals with the attempts at conversion and the coercion applied in the 12th century Wendish crusades that targeted the south-eastern shores of the Baltic Sea, the inherent violence applied in the crusades in the thirteenth century that targeted Livonia and Estonia, and with the late medieval knightly pass-times, the so-called Reysen, that targeted the then still pagan Lithuania.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Ane Bysted (Aarhus University, Denmark): The Apostolic Ideal between Conversion and Coercion on the Baltic Frontier: The Wendish Crusade of 1147
2. Torben Kjersgaard Nielsen (Aalborg University, Denmark): Ritual Violence in the Thirteenth Century Baltic Crusades
3. Thomas Heebøll-Holm (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark): Denmark, Danes and the Reisen in the Fourteenth Century

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

‘The Apostolic Ideal between Conversion and Coercion on the Baltic Frontier: The Wendish Crusade of 1147’

Ane Bysted, Aarhus Universitet 

When Pope Eugenius III granted crusader privileges to the fight against the pagan Wends living between the Elbe and the Baltic see in 1147, he explicitly stated as a condition that these pagans were converted to Christianity and not just forced to pay tribute – thus trying to make an end to the usual way of the Danish and German raids in the region. This made the Wendish Crusade an amalgam of mission and crusade and highlighted the old problem of using military force to further the process of conversion. This paper will examine the conflict between conversion and coercion in the Wendish Crusade of 1147 by looking at two of the main ecclesiastical agents behind this crusade: Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux and Bishop Anselm of the missionary diocese of Havelberg. Their letters make it possible to see how the ideals of canon law and the apostolic life were implemented in the harsh realities on the Baltic frontier. The paper will also examine the reactions to this joint Danish-Saxon campaign, which ended in failure both as a military and as a missionary enterprise. We search in vain, however, if we look for criticism of the theological implications or a concern that it might have been in conflict with canon law.

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‘Ritual Violence in the Thirteenth Century Baltic Crusades’ 

Torben Kjersgaard Nielsen, Aalborg University 

The Chronicon Livoniae, by the German priest Henry, relates the fate and course of the Baltic Crusades in the early thirteenth century. The chronicle, which covers the years ca. 1184-1227, ranks among our most important sources for the (mostly) German and Danish conquest of Livonia and Estonia. The thirteenth century Baltic Crusades are often described with the epithet ‘missionary wars’, and, judging from Henry’s chronicle, the conquest and the contemporaneous process of conversion and Christianisation do seem to have been extremely violent, also when compared to other theatres of crusading warfare. This paper asks broadly what was the nature and function of the violence applied in the Baltic Crusades? As a part of an answer to this question, the paper will seek to identify specific groups of victims that were the targets for this violence. Thus, this paper suggests to understand the violence applied in these missionary wars as a deliberate strategy of war. Henry’s chronicle may read like a journalistic eye witness report, relating everyday business on the Baltic frontier in a downplayed and detached manner. At the same time, however, the chronicle is a consciously arranged and organised text, i.e. literature. This paper suggests to in fact understand the chronicle’s descriptions of violence as an organising principle of Henry’s text, a strategy of writing.

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‘Denmark, Danes and the Reisen in the Fourteenth Century’ 

Thomas K. Heebøll-Holm, University of Southern Denmark 

In the fourteenth century nobles from Western Europe such as Duke Henry of Lancaster, Marshall Boucicaut and the future Henry IV went on seasonal crusades to the Baltic to aid the Teutonic knights against the pagan Lithuanians. These crusades were called the Reysen. They were a very popular endeavour for not only would the Reysen bestow a reputation for piety on the crusader. Participation in these crusades could also serve to boost one prestige as a tireless knight as the battlefields of Lithuania was an ideal place to demonstrate one’s skills in warfare to one’s European peers. Further, since Lithuania was closer than the Holy Land it was easier – and safer - for many northern European prospective crusaders to go here. In sum, going on Reysen provided for the knight not only an opportunity to fight in a holy war, it also permitted him to boost his prestige internationally and to bond with the warrior elite of Europe. While the Danes lived in close proximity to these promising fields of holy military glory, evidence of Danes participating in these Reysen or for that matter the Baltic crusades in the fourteenth century are few and far between. One reason could be that Danes for much of the century were locked in domestic wars as well in as the Crown’s wars with the Hansa and the dukes of Mecklenburg. Furthermore, it is likely that the Danish kings were discouraged from encroaching on the area of the Teutonic Order. Nevertheless, these factors should not by definition preclude individual pious noblemen from joining these spiritually and politically rewarding wars. This begs the questions: Had the Danes become unwilling crusaders or was low Danish participation due to circumstances alone? The paper will investigate this question in order to discuss whether the Danes - compared to the previous centuries - had lost the taste for Baltic crusades.

ABSTRACT. The panel tackles the question of the nature of historians' work by examining the contemporary pressures directed at them, their self-understandings as expressed in research and in autobiographies, and their self-awareness as articulated in interviews. Our contributors approach this question from a number of different disciplines and backgrounds ranging from the philosophy of history through historiography and business history to educational sciences. The idea behind this lies in the observation that although the theory and philosophy of history have established research traditions that reflect on the characteristics of the domain, these theories have very rarely been put to test in empirical settings. Thus, there is a limit to how much can be said about historians' professional expertise from historical perspectives alone. The methodological practices developed in educational sciences, however, could provide tools for gradually bridging the gap between so-far-detached theoretical studies and the empirical testing of learning and development in the domain of history. By investigating how historians see their practices, we hope to initiate a broader discussion and lay the ground for reaching a more cross-disciplinary, comprehensive understanding of professional historical research.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Ben Dorfman (Aalborg University, Denmark): Thinking History Today: Return to a Particular Historicist Charge?
2. Jaume Aurell (University of Navarra, Spain): Historians on Themselves: The Function of Historians’ Autobiographies
3. Susanna Fellman (University of Gothenburg, Sweden): Talking to Historians: Interviews as a Source for Methodological Reflections in Business History
4. Mikko Kainulainen (University of Turku, Finland), Marjaana Puurtinen (University of Turku, Finland) & Clark Chinn (Rutgers University, USA): Historians’ Epistemic Cognition

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Thinking History Today: Return to a Particular Historicist Charge?
Ben Dorfman 

Our times involve enormous cultural and political torsion. Senses of global culturo-political crisis may have nonetheless inaugurated the “end” of the “end of history.” By “end of history,” I mean less Fukuyama-esque senses of the end of ideological conflicts between liberalism and socialism than the end of the end of historical consciousness suggested by a range of critics having accompanied the post-Cold War years. Crisis – broad global crisis – may have reinvigorated an interest historical knowledge and genealogical investigations of culturo-political situations in which we find ourselves. Publics have begun to ask for understandings of the conflicted lifeworld in which we find ourselves. In this setting, the conventional role of historians as academically isolated is being questioned, and we are called to investigate our role as public intellectuals. Concepts of “historicism” must be treated with care – postmodern critiques of objectivity and unembodied historical narratives have been decisive. Still, the kind of historical knowledge publics appear to ask for in today’s uncertain times may be of a gestalt nature. Specifically, there may be a thirst for what historicist Heinrich Rickert termed the historical “nexus”: contextualizing individualized events – economic crises, terrorist attacks, specific regional conflicts (e.g., Syria) – against larger gestalt understandings of not only our times, but global historical narratives explaining how things became how they “are.” I.e., specific events may have resurrected public interests in “grand” historical thinking. The conceptualization of such thought might be best represented in sets of historical theories (hermeneuticist and phenomenological historicisms) no longer oft-referenced, yet perhaps with high relevance nonetheless. This presentation will examine such phenomena in an attempt to grapple with the demands on historical thought placed on historians in the contemporary age.

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Historians on Themselves: The Function of Historians' Autobiographies
Jaume Aurell 

Thomas Kuhn provided scholars from all the scientific disciplines with the concept of “paradigm”, which helps us engage the process of reformation of the historical discipline. A paradigm is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns that includes theories, methodologies and tenets critical for a discipline in a given moment, based on a general consent by their members. Historians are prone to revise their epistemic principles, so the analysis of their functioning as scientific collective may be particularly useful for the aims of this Conference. In the 20th century, historians have developed three successive paradigms: the humanistic perspective in the between-wars period, the scientific in the postwar period, and the postmodern in the last third of the century. This paper examines the motivations of these shifts, which ultimately gives the discipline dynamism and vitality. I believe that one of the most reliable and expressive sources for an understanding of this process are texts by “historians on historians”. Historians talk of historians mainly in two ways: when they criticize their colleagues’ works and when they write their autobiographies. This paper explores the latter strategy, selecting particular examples of what we call “interventional autobiography”, that is, historians trying to “intervene” in the historiographical debates through their personal experiences. I will focus, in particular, on the work of Geoff Eley, Natalie Z. Davis, Gabrielle M. Spiegel, Dominick LaCapra, Gerda Lerner, William H. Sewell, Jr., Sheila Fitzpatrick, Peter Burke and John Elliott. I call these writings interventional in the sense that these historians use their autobiographies, with a more or less deliberate authorial intention, to participate, mediate, and intervene in theoretical debates by using the story of their own intellectual and academic trajectory as the source of historiography.

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Talking to Historians: Interviews as a Source for Methodological Reflections in Business History
Susanna Fellman & Andrew Popp 

Historians often seem reluctant to talk about their methodological approaches beyond brief descriptions of their sources. This applies to their work in the archive and the processing of the empirical material, but the work of constructing the historical narrative also frequently remains concealed. This act of concealment has implications for how others receive our work, hindering dialogue with non-historians. In previous work, we interviewed business historians about their practices. Our interviews followed the entire process of conducting historical research, from the work in the archive to the production of the written text. We found that historians practice a range of systematic collection techniques whilst in the archive, which also extends to their writing practices. However, practices are to a great extent also based on intuition and tacit knowledge. We observed the significance of the act of writing as a process of reflection and sense-making. These discussions provided us with insights into the “historians’ craft”, about business historians’ professional practices, their relation to the archive, about the key role of the writing in the scholarly process, and about business historians’ epistemological positions. We noted how interviewees welcomed the opportunity to engage in dialogue about their practices, though they grappled with explaining what it is they do. In this paper we reflect on what kind of knowledge can be acquired by using oral sources in methodological explorations in historical scholarship. Can greater understanding of the historian’s craft be gained through such dialogue or are the insights generated likely to remain idiosyncratic and specific to the individual respondent? Is the historian’s craft robust enough to withstand exposure to discussion? How can insights gained through an oral research method be incorporated into the texts we write?

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Historians’ Epistemic Cognition
Mikko Kainulainen, Marjaana Puurtinen & Clark Chinn

During the past few decades there have been some pursuits in spotlighting historians’ views on both their intellectual development as well as their writing and thinking about history, such as the work reported by Maria Lúcia Pallares-Burke and in Rethinking History. Although they provide crucial insights about how eminent historians reflect on their general practices, these reports have been unable to systematically access the daily epistemic processes of “doing history” by a significant sample of working historians. It is therefore crucial to approach historians’ work not only through their general beliefs about the nature and importance of historical research, but also through more detailed reflections on their everyday practices: How are specific methods chosen for research projects? What happens when one comes upon an unexpected research finding? To approach this issue, we conducted a series of semi-structured interviews with 24 Finnish academic historians about their work practices, understanding of historical research and historiography, and their own perceptions of their personal development towards expertise in the discipline. Applying the AIR model of epistemic cognition, we analyze the historians’ narrations through a content analysis focusing on three components: epistemic Aims and values, epistemic Ideals, and Reliable processes for producing epistemic products. Preliminary results show considerable variation between historians on all these components. At the end, we aim to demonstrate what a more cognitiveoriented approach could add to the current understanding on professional historians’ epistemic views on their discipline.

ABSTRACT. The second half of the twentieth century is characterized by rapid economic, structural, and social change, and the growth of the welfare in the Nordic countries. Social rights were gained by different segments of society and the concept of social citizenship was extended to include different groups and areas of life. This was not only the work of the welfare state, but equally so a result of the efforts of different citizen movements that fought for the rights of marginalized groups. Often transnational in its character, citizen activism did not only lead to improved conditions for the groups in focus, activists also worked towards changing the mentality surrounding people previously seen as mentally, physically, or racially inferior. Thereby, the language used to describe different social groups changed and new concepts were used to empower the groups at hand as well as tools to reach political goals.

In this session researchers from two Nordic universities analyze citizen activism among immigrant and disabled groups in Finland and Sweden during the second half of the twentieth century. The session examines the goals, the channels of activism as well as the networks of leading activists. Although focusing on specific activist groups, the papers highlight the transnational character of citizen activism and the transnational networks of different citizen movements. The papers also study conceptual and discursive change and how activists challenged the language used in connection with immigrant and disabled minorities.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Hanna Lindberg (Åbo Akademi University): Activating a Minority within a Minority. The networks and mobilization of the deaf awareness movement among the Finland-Swedish Deaf.
2. Mats Wickström (Åbo Akademi University): From Finns in Sweden to Sweden Finns: Ethnic Activism and Conceptual Change in Post-War Sweden.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Activating a Minority within a Minority. The networks and mobilization of the deaf awareness movement among the Finland-Swedish Deaf 

PhD Hanna Lindberg, Åbo Akademi University 

This paper explores the introduction of the deaf awareness movement among the FinlandSwedish deaf. In the spirit of different citizen movements, a deaf awareness movement spread across the western world during the 1970s and 1980s. The deaf awareness movement challenged the notion of deafness as a physical handicap and the integration of the deaf into hearing society. Instead, the deaf should be viewed as a linguistic and cultural minority constructed around sign language. Within the small Finland-Swedish deaf community, the deaf awareness movement had great impact. A minority within the small Swedish-speaking minority in Finland, the Finland-Swedish deaf community primarily existed around the school for the deaf in the town of Borgå, where deaf children to Swedish speaking Finns from all over the country were sent. Inspired by the message of the deaf awareness movement, representatives of the Finland-Swedish deaf community demanded that sign language should be recognised as the primary language in the education of the deaf, and that the rights of the deaf should be respected by all strands of society. Despite improved educational rights for the deaf, with sign language recognised as a primary form of communication in 1985, the Borgå school for the deaf was closed in 1993. As a consequence, a majority of Finland-Swedish deaf students moved to Sweden to receive an education, leading to Finland-Swedish deaf culture and sign language slowly becoming extinct in Finland. The paper studies the local implementation of a transnational awareness movement. It focuses on the means by which deaf awareness was introduced among the Finland-Swedish deaf in the late 1970s and the 1980s, as well as the specific aims of a group constituted of two intersecting minority positions. How did the awareness movement reach the Finland-Swedish deaf and did the community have a key position in spreading the message of deaf awareness in Finland, considering the fact that their ties to Sweden have always been strong? How was the transnational message of deaf awareness applied on the specific needs of the Finland-Swedish deaf?

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From Finns in Sweden to Sweden Finns: Ethnic Activism and Conceptual Change in Post-War Sweden 

PhD Mats Wickström, Åbo Akademi University 

In 1999 the Sweden Finns (Finnish: ruotsinsuomalaiset, Swedish: sverigefinnar) were recognized as a national minority by the Swedish parliament. The Sweden Finnish national minority is primarily made up of Finnish-speaking post-war labour immigrants and their descendants. The Finnish-speaking Finns in Sweden are unique due to the fact that they are the only post-war immigrant group in Europe to, hitherto, be accorded official national minority status. Before this new national minority formally came into existence through an act of parliament, the group had to be designated and conceptualized as a minority. When it became apparent in the latter half 1960s that Sweden had become the new home of around 200 000 Finnish-speaking immigrants, the status of the Finns became contested within the group as well as in Swedish and Finnish public discourse and politics. This paper sets out to study the introduction of the ethonym ’Sweden Finns’ and its use in the claims-making of Finnish activists in Sweden. The paper explores the following questions: when, by whom and where (in which arenas and through which channels) was the concept of Sweden Finns, as designating a national Swedish minority, introduced? In what way were the Sweden Finns constituted as a minority by the conceptual innovator(s), and how was this new category related to and differentiated from existing categories such as Finns, Swedish-speaking Finns (Swedish: finlandssvenskar, Finnish: suomenruotsalaiset) and immigrants?

ABSTRACT. Adolescents’ income contributions were of great importance for a majority of working-class families still at the end of the nineteenth century (Haines 1979; 1985; Haber & Gratton 1994; Rotella & Alter 1993). This changed during the first half of the twentieth century. Laws concerning child labour were established, the educational system was extended, and incomes for workers increased. All in all, this development resulted in rising costs for having children. Furthermore, net costs for working children seem to have increased, too. Preliminary results from a study of the Swedish household budget surveys of 1913–14 and 1933 show that adolescent’s on average contributed less to family income in the 1930s than in the 1910s. One cause was increasing enrolment in secondary education. Another, that contributions from working adolescents were smaller in 1933. This resulted in higher costs for having adolescents living at home. The development was most obvious among more well-off workers. Perhaps their adolescents were allowed to keep more of their incomes for themselves. The development can probably be seen as another aspect of the trade-off between quantity and quality of children (Becker 1960; 1981). In the full paper, long-term trends in development will be easier to establish by also adding household budget surveys for 1923 and 1948.

ABSTRACT. The interlacing of decision-makers, experts and researchers are often put forward as a decisive factor in the creation of modern Sweden. Some historians have even labeled the Swedish welfare state as an institutionalized “scientific state”. However, research shows that this collaboration has never been without friction, e.g. in the conflict between research commissioned by politicians and the free research idealized by the researchers.

The project analyzes intersections and tensions between the knowledge-base of policy and research within welfare politics, by the example of substance abuse policy. Drawing theoretically on science-policy nexus research and history of science, the project examines the relation between policy and research historically and contextually. Making use of empirical and archival material from different arenas the project analyzes the shifting ways politicians, authorities and researchers have defined the knowledge-base of the field from the 1910s and onwards. In three separate studies knowledge production, knowledge dissemination and knowledge utilization is examined. In a fourth study the results are synthesized and compared. What efforts have been made to ensure the policymakers’ need of research-based knowledge and how have researchers responded? In what ways have the status of research as a political reform instrument changed during the last century?

ABSTRACT. Detta rundabordssamtal samlar forskare som på olika sätt har arbetat med det som på senare år har kallats krigets upplevelsehistoria. Pionjärärna inom inriktningen är historiker som Johan Keegan, Joanna Bourke och Ian Ousby som i sina böcker lyft fram den enskilda individens upplevelse av stridssituationer och erfarenheter av dödandet. På nordisk botten har tillexempel Ville Sarkamos forskning har lyft fram karolinska krigares erfarenheter. Krigets upplevelsehistoria handlar inte bara om soldatens upplevelser. Frågan kan även utvidgas till att ta med alla som på olika sätt berörs och påverkas av krig. Fokus kan ligga på den enskildes upplevelser, men även handla om att studera grupper av individer eller hela samhällen och deras upplevelser. Att studera upplevelsen av krig vidgar perspektivet bort från att bara undersöka krig som händelser och förlopp mot att även undersöka hur kriget upplevs och hanteras av de som utsätts för krig. Upplevelsen av krig sätter ofta spår som får konsekvenser på mycket lång sikt. Att ge sig i kast med att studera krigserfarenheter vidgar vi perspektiven och ökar vår kunskap om krigets konsekvenser.

Ordförande: prof Martin Hårdstedt, Umeå universitet

Deltagare:

1. prof Henrik Meinander, Helsingfors universitet "Krigets känslolandskap: reflektioner kring en totalhistorisk infallsvinkel".
2. fil dr Lina Sturfelt, Lunds universitet "Kriget in på bara kroppen. Svenska Rädda Barnens humanitära berättelser om första världskriget"
3. fil dr Ville Sarkamo "Kulturell effekt av krigstrauma. Sårade kristliga krigare efter stora nordiska kriget (1700 - 1721)"
4. prof Gunner Lind, Köpenhamns universitet
5. fil dr AnnaSara Hammar, Stockholms universitet "Villkoren inom Örlogsflottan"

ABSTRACT. Reformation of Civic Space in 19thC Riga: from the primitive to the indigenous The reformation of the ethos of Riga as a self-referential place in the latter part of 19th and early 20thC marks an uncertain departure from the making of a ‘Kulturnation’ that was meant to be part of the Livonian Province’s road to westernisation. As social, political, cultural and ethnic relationships transformed civic space, the process of raising of society to a higher level of rational reflection and individualism became a painful experience that needed mediation.

Similar studies of this period stress vernacularisation in the urban environment. My study looks at two other strategies of mediating the jump from an agrarian way of life to urbanisation in Riga. From the first attempts at recalling the indigenous primitivism of Hanseatic Gothic in the 19thC, to the second phase of a specifically Latvian cultural identity formation in the 201thC, which emerges as a two pronged construct based on indigenous mythology on the one hand, and an altered sensibility reconstituting itself out of the negation of its medieval past, reflected in more horrific Gothic architectural forms that can almost be read as defamiliarisation of the human subject.

ABSTRACT. Compared with experimental sciences, historiography is epistemologically challenged, being forced to found its theories on whatever texts and (other) artifacts--Überreste--left behind by the past. And yet historians have produced a myriad of facts and middle-range theories that are never seriously contested--although there are certainly many disputed assertions as well. Aspiring to assess the ground for the acceptance of the wealth of facts and theories of limited range as the poststructuralist or linguistic tide seems to be on the wane, this paper discusses four challenges to objective historiography. These are, respectively, the narrative’s relative independence from facts, as one set of the latter can support narratives of different kinds (Hayden White); the fluidity of narrative sentences, which means that descriptive closure is unavailable (Arthur Danto); the indeterminacy of interpretation, preventing the definitive description of action (Donald Davidson); and the indelibly subjective element of description since every event is in one sense a linguistic construct (Paul Roth). It is granted that each one of these challenges represents an impediment to objectivity in a strict, or global, sense. It is argued, however, that none of them prevents objectivity of a more local or limited kind: namely within the description under which the event or action is seen. This arguably innocuous observation provides a foundation for scientific historiography after postmodernism. It acknowledges that we live in a post-foundational age, yet claims that within this world where everything is in flux, local objectivity supplies a pragmatically solid ground on which to build historical narratives and other higher-order theories.

ABSTRACT. In the year 1871 the recently founded Finnish Antiquarian Society started to organize art-historical expeditions in Finland. The expeditions assembled an astonishingly heterogeneous party of architects, artists, and antiquarians. The leading figure of the expeditions was antiquarian and journalist Emil Nervander (1840–1914), who had realized, that in parish churches there existed a lot of medieval objects and artifacts, in danger of being destroyed. Nervander saw these artifacts in a new light, as crucial evidence of Finnish cultural history, and as material objects well worth careful study. The goal of the expeditions was to document mural paintings, wooden sculptures, the very church buildings and different kind of artifacts found in them. During the eight expeditions (1871–1902) almost 3 000 documentary images were produced about this material, mostly drawings, watercolours, and also photographs. This material, fundamental to the idea of Finnish Medieval history and well referred to in history books, is surprisingly little studied. Even the reputation of these groundbreaking expeditions is today somewhat contradictory. Basing on research of this material, I will in my presentation suggest that the art historical expeditions observed and valued the findings in a new way: suddenly old art and objects of domestic material culture were found interesting. Also, I will argue, that the aims and results of the expeditions have been much more diverse than has been thought before. The actual objective was documentation for the benefit of archaeological research. However, there was also a strong ambition to study the ancient material culture and create a new arts and crafts production based on this old “national” art.

ABSTRACT. Reformationens indførelse, udbredelse og konsolidering i Norden var i høj grad et udslag af lokale forhold og forhandlinger mellem autoriteterne i de nordiske lande. I Danmark-Norge blev reformationen indført efter en borgerkrig, hvorunder rigsrådets flertal ændrede holdning til hvilken konfession der skulle dominere riget. Herefter var særligt adelen særdeles aktiv i implementeringen af konfession i Danmark-Norge. Sverige-Finland var fra midten af 1500-tallet formelt luthersk, men myndighedernes skiftende holdninger til trosspørgsmålet op gennem 1500-tallet skabte usikkerhed om, hvilken konfessionel retning der var den dominerende. Begge eksempler illustrerer autoriteternes centrale rolle i reformationens konsolidering og konfessionalisering af samfundet. Martin Luthers politiske teologi med trestandslæren som centralt omdrejningspunkt, betonede i høj grad de verdslige autoriteters magt i verdenen. Autoriteterne skulle være som fædre for befolkningen og have ansvar overfor samfundet og folket. Ifølge Luther eksisterede der tre af Gud sanktionerede autoriteter: Husfaderen, lærefaderen og regeringsfaderen. Husfaderen havde ansvaret for familiens kristne opdragelse og tro, lærefaderen havde ansvaret for menighedens fromhed, og regeringsfaderen skulle beskytte og understøtte de to andre stænders virke. Dette var den evangelisk-lutherske grundlære. Men konfessioner var i højeste grad påvirket af lokale forhold, og synet på autoritet og øvrighed ændrede sig derfor over tid, landegrænser og politiske hændelser. Formålet med denne session er at undersøge autoritets- og øvrighedsforståelser i Norden for derved at forstå, hvorvidt reformationen og særligt Luthers tanker påvirkede det dansk-norske rige og det svensk-finske rige i perioden 1500-1750. De tre bidragsydere vil undersøge, hvilken rolle øvrigheden spillede i kampen mellem forskellige konfessioner i Sverige, hvordan det evangelisk-lutherske autoritetsideal påvirkede øvrigheden i Danmark, og hvordan autoritetssynet blev formet af ortodoksien og senere pietismen i Danmark-Norge. Herved vil det blive belyst hvilken rolle autoritet og øvrighed spillede i Norden og derved give ny viden om baggrunden for vores nutidige forståelser af autoriteter og øvrighed.

OPLÆG:

1. Morten Fink-Jensen (Københavns Universitet): Lydighed og sognepræsternes autoritet efter reformationen i Danmark.
2. Rasmus Skovgaard Jakobsen (Aarhus Universitet): Adel mellem konge og folk.
3. Arne Bugge Amundsen (Universitetet i Oslo): Autoritet og følelse. Samfunnsorden mellom ortodoksi og pietisme

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Adel mellem konge og gejstlighed
Rasmus Skovgaard Jakobsen, Aarhus Universitet 

Modsat flertallet af de lande som reformationen påvirkede i begyndelsen af 1500-tallet, så blev den evangelisk-lutherske konfession den altdominerende teologiske retning i DanmarkNorge efter 1536. Christian 3. havde sejret i borgerkrigen Grevens Fejde og havde derfor fået mulighed for at definere hvordan Danmark-Norge skulle formes politisk, religiøst og kulturelt. Nok var kongen blevet både religiøst og materielt forstærket med reformationen, men Danmark-Norge var endnu langt fra at blive den stærke centralstat, som vi ser under Enevælden. For at forstærke sin samfundsposition allierede kongemagten sig særligt med adelen. Adelen havde støttet Christian 3. under borgerkrigen og standen var gennem godsejerskaber en lokal magtfaktor i de enkelte sogne. Derudover havde standen administrationserfaring fra deres ejendomme – en tillokkende egenskab for den gryende dansk-norske centralstat. Adelsstanden var derfor attraktiv for kongemagten, ligesom kongemagtens rigdom, magtlegitimering og status var attraktiv for adelen. Den kongeligadelige alliance skabte derfor ro og orden mellem to af samfundets elitegrupperinger. Men hvilken rolle skulle adelen have efter 1536? I fremlæggelsen vil jeg undersøge, hvordan den danske adel, kongemagt og gejstlighed i løbet af 1500-tallet forhandlede et nyt autoritetsideal for adelsstanden. Det vil blive undersøgt, hvordan adelen positionerede sin autoritetsrolle gennem forskellige selviscenesættende medier, hvordan kongemagten søgte at forme adelsidealet gennem lovgivning, og hvordan gejstligheden opstillede en række krav for at indlemme, og derved religiøst legitimere, adelen i den evangelisk-lutherske konfession. Et gennemgående tema i fremlæggelsen vil derfor være, hvordan adelen positionerede sig som evangelisk-luthersk øvrighed for derved at få adgang til den autoritet, som konfessionen havde nedlagt i kongemagten i 1500-tallets Danmark.

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Autoritet og følelse. Samfunnsorden mellom ortodoksi og pietisme 

Arne Bugge Amundsen, Universitetet i Oslo 

Den lutherske tenkningen om stendene og deres innbyrdes, hierarkiske forhold sto sentralt gjennom 1500- og 1600-tallet. I kristendomsopplæringen, forkynnelsen og den sosiale praksis ble denne tenkningen presentert for stadig nye generasjoner i Danmark-Norge. Tidlig på 1600-tallet ble denne sosiale og kulturelle innlæringen intensivert – til dels i så stor grad at enkelte forskere omtaler denne perioden som en «second reformation». Det som preget denne intensiverte innsatsen for å forme den dansk-norske befolkningen i luthersk fromhet og sosialetikk var en kombinasjon av økte krav til ytre observans og individuell internalisering. Dette skapte – i hvert fall på retorisk nivå – en spenning mellom den ytre samfunnsorden og religionens krav på individets konsentrasjon. I prekenlitteratur og teologisk refleksjon ble dette utformet som en type luthersk botsfromhet, med stor tilslutning også i de høyeste sosiale lagene. Kong Christian IVs (konge 1588-1648) politiske praksis og lovgivervirksomhet var tydelig preget av denne fromheten. Det samme kan spores hos en så sentral aktør som kongens samtidige, riksråd Holger Rosenkrantz (1574-1642). Fra denne botsfromheten går linjene både teologisk og sosio-religiøst frem mot den dansknorske pietismen, som også fikk bredt nedslag ikke minst i de høyere sosiale lag. Introspeksjonen, internaliseringen og gjensidig anerkjennelse av religiøse følelser trekkes i den pietistiske bevegelsen enda lenger, og den utfordrer i enda større grad enn botsortodoksien den gamle samfunnsorden: De sanne troende som gjensidig anerkjente hverandre var samfunnets nye orden. Med den støtte det pietistiske prosjektet fikk gjennom Christian VI (konge 1730-1746) ble denne opposisjonen «temmet», men likevel ble pietismen – i bred forstand - en utfordring for den bestående orden.

ABSTRACT. Critique of religion and its consequences is a topical theme. The attack on the satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo in Paris in January 2015 made the Western media establishment to rally in defence of freedom of expression, but it also raised the question of the limits of this freedom. The issue arose again in connection with the attacks in Copenhagen a few weeks later. There are always more or less defined limits to freedom of expression, which change over time and are adapted to the political system that prevails. Ideas that in various ways question or threaten the current value system are not accepted. In Western society, racism is an example of such an illicit opinion, while blasphemy and criticism of the state-sanctioned religion took the same position in pre- and early modern society. Criticism of the established church and the religiously motivated social order played an important role in the transformation of society that is usually labelled as secularisation and which meant that state and politics gradually became detached from church and religion. We will discuss the concrete expressions of anticlericalism in the Nordic countries, how and with what purpose it was used in political and church political debates and rhetoric, its role in fiction and popular culture, and its expressions within Protestant revivalism and political radicalism, and last but not least, blasphemy and its changing meaning and position.

PRESENTATIONS: 

1. Yvonne Maria Werner (Lunds universitet): Till försvar för samhällets värdegrund: hädelseprocesser i Sverige runt sekelskiftet 1900 i ett komparativt perspektiv
2. Lars Edgren (Lunds universitet): Republikanism och antiklerikalism. 'Fäderneslandet' och 'Folkets tidning' omkring 1860

INDIVIDUAL ASTRACTS:

Yvonne Maria Werner (Lunds universitet): Till försvar för samhällets värdegrund: hädelseprocesser i Sverige runt sekelskiftet 1900 i ett komparativt perspektiv

Det finns alltid bestämda gränser för yttrandefriheten, vilka förändras över tid och anpassas efter det politiska system som råder. Sådant som på olika sätt ifrågasätter eller hotar den rådande värdegrunden är inte tillåtet. I vårt demokratiska samhälle är rasismen ett exempel på en sådan otillåten opinionsyttring, medan hädelse och kritik av den av staten sanktionerade religionsformen intog samma ställning i det äldre samhället liksom också i dagens islamiska stater som exempelvis Saudiarabien. Kritiken mot kyrkan och den religiöst motiverade samhällsordningen spelade en viktig roll i den samhällsomdaning som brukar betecknas som sekularisering och som innebar att stat och politik alltmer frikopplades från kyrka och religion.

I min presentation kommer jag att belysa hädelsefenomenet och dess förändrade betydelse i Sverige med exempel från domstolsprocesser och debatter runt sekelskiftet 1900 i ett europeiskt perspektiv – och med en utblick mot dagens situation.

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Lars Edgren (Lunds universitet): Republikanism och antiklerikalism. 'Fäderneslandet' och 'Folkets tidning' omkring 1860

Antiklerikalism förknippas ofta med kritik av den katolska prästerliga hierarkin, särskilt med liberala rörelsers försök att upprätta en tydlig skillnad mellan stat och kyrka. Men även ordet först användes vid mitten av 1800-talet i detta sammanhang kan kritik mot prästerskapets/makthavarnas inflytande förekomma inom olika religioner och samfund. Detta papper fokuserar på kritik av det lutherska prästerskapet strax efter 1800-talets mitt och på relationen mellan antiklerikalism och antikatolicism. Det är den tidens politiska vänster och två tidningar – Fäderneslandet och Folkets tidning – som företrädde denna som är föremål för undersökningen.

Hur denna politiska rörelse ska betecknas råder det ingen enighet om. Ofta betecknas tidningarna som liberala, ibland radikala, demokratiska eller rabulistiska. Enligt min mening finns det anledning att pröva om inte republikanska är en mer träffande beteckning. Fäderneslandet var, åtminstone under 1800-talet, tydligt republikansk i den meningen att den kritiserade det monarkiska styrelseskicket. Men även när inte direkt kritik av monarkin förekom så var också föreställningen om folksuveränitet och om den moraliskt frigörande kraft som skulle genomsyra landet när folket fått makten i egen hand tankar som hör hemma i en republikansk idétradition.

Fäderneslandet, utan tvivel den mer radikala av tidningarna, förenar en kraftfull antikatolicism med en kritik av den svenska statskyrkan och dess företrädare. I satiriska bilder, verser och nyheter om präster som gjort sig skyldig till brott, målas bilden upp av hycklande och moraliskt förfallna individer. Men i centrum står kritik av den politiska makt som prästerskapet hade genom att de utgjorde ett särskilt stånd i riksdagen. Och det var en makt som användes för reaktionära syften. Retoriskt utnyttjades i detta sammanhang de etablerade bilderna av den katolska kyrkan, särskilt av jesuiterna, som en resurs för att kritisera de lutherska prästerna, som påstods vara lutherska jesuiter eller papister.

Folkets tidning valde att förhålla sig till statskyrkan på ett helt annat sätt. Tidningen var starkt antikatolsk och riktade också kritik mot den missionsverksamhet som bedrevs i Sverige av bland annat mormoner och baptister. Dessa religiösa rörelser var ett hot mot upplysning och civilisation. I detta sammanhang framstod den svenska statskyrkan som ett värn mot sådana religiösa rörelser. Tidningen delade inte Fäderneslandets mot den svenska kyrkan riktade antiklerikalism.

ABSTRACT. Efterkrigstidens svenska religionsblinda historieskrivning är numera ett minne blott. Lagom till 500-årsjubileet av händelserna i Wittenberg har Luther kommit till heders när framväxten av det moderna Sverige skall beskrivas. Under teoretiska paraplybegrepp som ”sekulariserad lutherdom” och ”samhällsteologi” framställs här den gamle kyrkoreformatorn som källa till individualism och personligt självförverkligande (Berggren & Trägård 2015; Claesson 2016). Den i nordisk jämförelse medlemsstarka anglosaxiskt influerade väckelsekristendomen presenteras istället som en alternativ modernitet drabbad av inre sekularisering (Halldorf 2015).

Sådana resonemang är förföriskt eleganta, men samtidigt förvirrande eftersom de otydliggör gränserna mellan kristen aktivism och kristendomsfientligt idégods i 1900-talets pluralistiska samhälle. I min presentation kommer jag för det första att diskutera aktuell forskning, och för det andra plädera för en evidensbaserad forskningsmodell med syfte att analysera de kristna samfundens omfattande verksamhet i det civila samhället. Ett tydligt exempel är den religiösa söndagsskolan, som i Sverige liksom i övriga Norden var i stark tillväxt under första halvan av 1900-talet. 1950 gick drygt 40 procent av alla svenska barn mellan 4 och 14 år i söndagsskola (Sidebäck 1992). Förutsättningarna för och effekterna av denna verksamhet avseende bland annat genus, klass och etnicitet är ännu otillräckligt utforskade.

Referenser: Henrik Berggren & Lars Trägårdh, Är svensken människa? Gemenskap och oberoende i det moderna Sverige, andra upplagan, Stockholm 2015, kap 13. Urban Claesson, ”Drömmen om en ny människa”, i Urban Claesson & Dick Åhman (red), Kulturell reproduktion i skola och nation: en vänbok till Lars Pettersson, Möklinta 2016, s 351-360. Joel Halldorf, ”Evangelicals, Practices, and the Univocity of Being”, i Joel Halldorf & Fredrik Wenell (eds), Between the State and Eucharist: Free Church Teology in Conversation with William T Cavanaugh, Eugene 2015, s 68-81. Göran Sidebäck, Kampen om barnets själ: barn- och ungdomsorganisationer för fostran och normbildning 1850–1980, Stockholm 1992, s 34.

ABSTRACT. Lutherjubileet i 1917 og forberedelsene til dette fikk ulik betydning for de nordiske immigrantkirkene i USA. Hvorfor?

Religion hadde en sentral plass i immigrantenes sosiale og kulturelle liv ved slutten av 1800-tallet og begynnelsen av 1900- tallet. Det religiøse hadde en sentral funksjon i de samfunnene de forlot. Dessuten var det å migrere forbundet mye usikkerhet, og kirken og religionsutøvelse kunne tilby trøst og en trygg basis for mange. De fleste norske immigrantene holdt seg til Luthers lære, og mye av deres kirkelige aktivitet var preget av lekmannsengasjement. For nordmenn utgjorde forberedelsene til Lutherjubileet aktivitet og handlinger som skulle komme til å forene de mange norskamerikanske kirkesamfunnene, The Big Merger.

Noe annerledes var det for danskamerikanske og svenskamerikanske kirkeengasjerte. Flere forlot den lutherske forkynnelsen, og kirkestrukturen i de lutherske svenske og danske immigrantkirkene var annerledes enn innenfor den norskamerikanske. Hva betydde kirkelig organisering og struktur for den rolle Lutherjubileet kom til å spille i de ulike etnisk nordiske immigrantkirkene i USA?

ABSTRACT. In their seminar book, Fighting poverty in the US and Europe, economists Albert Alesina and Edward Glaeser claimed that differences in welfare state systems are caused by diversity in terms of population. Hence, they argued that a homogenous population, for example in the Nordic countries, made it possible to create a highly generous welfare state system based on social solidarity across social classes. In the US, a highly diverse and heterogeneous population hindered the development of a generous welfare state. This claim that there is a causal link between race / ethnicity and welfare state systems has been debated among social science researchers, who either contested this causal link (Will Kymlicka, Keith Banting) or included this observation when exploring how post WWII immigration has affected European welfare states (Robert Putnam, Wim van Oorshot).

In social science history these observations presents us with a compelling set of questions: How homogenous were the Nordic countries in the late 19th century, when the welfare states were in their developmental phase? How and when was the notion of the Nordic countries as particularly homogenous societies established? Has this notion of homogeneity shaped the political practise in the age of new migration (post WWII)?

ABSTRACT. I denna session diskuteras det framväxande forskningsfältet kunskapshistoria (history of knowledge, Wissensgeschichte) som under 2000-talet har rönt alltmer uppmärksamhet både internationellt och i Norden. Utmärkande för denna nya inriktning är att det analytiska intresset riktas mot när, hur, varför och med vilka konsekvenser som kunskap cirkulerar i ett vidare samhälleligt sammanhang. Särskilt intresse ägnas perioder då nya former av kunskap uppstår och gör anspråk på att påverka samhällsutvecklingen.

Ett nyckelbegrepp inom det kunskapshistoriska forskningsfältet är ”cirkulation”. Dock saknas det fortfarande en mer kvalificerad teoretisk och metodologisk diskussion av begreppet som är kopplad till empiriska exempel. Med stöd i konkreta fall ur den nordiska historien – från 1500-talets kartografi till efterkrigstidens sexologi – kommer vi i denna session därför att diskutera denna tematik för att tillsammans utforska vad kunskap i cirkulation är och hur detta fenomen kan studeras ur olika infallsvinklar. Inspiration hämtas från pågående internationella samtal inom vetenskaps-, medie- och kunskapshistoria.

Deltagarna i sessionen grundade under 2016 ett nordiskt kunskapshistoriskt nätverk, ”New History of Knowledge” (se: newhistoryofknowledge.com).

Sessionsledare: Johan Östling, docent i historia och Pro Futura-forskare vid Lunds universitet och Swedish Collegium for Advanced Study (SCAS) i Uppsala.

Övriga deltagare: Erling Sandmo, Universitetet i Oslo; David Larsson Heidenblad, Lunds universitet; Laura Hollsten, Åbo Akademi.

ABSTRACT. Vi inviterer til debat om den aktuelle udvikling inden for byhistorien, særligt om hvordan et øget fokus på hverdagens praksis, materialitet og sanser bidrager til forståelsen af urbane (re)formationer – forstået som den gradvise proces, hvorved byens rum forandres i et samspil mellem byens fysiske strukturer, forestillinger om byen og de hverdagslige praksisser, der kontinuerligt omformer byen som centrum og hjem? Inspireret af forfattere som Simmel og De Certeau interesserer bystudier sig i stigende grad for sammenhængen mellem materielle og mentale, strategiske og spontane forandringer. Med dette nye perspektiv ligger fokus ikke længere i samme grad på kontinuitet eller brud, men på processuelle forandringer i urbaniseringens funktioner, former og udtryk. Hvilke mekanismer og processer er med til at bestemme, hvilke strukturer der forhærdes og hvilke der tilpasses, forandres eller helt forsvinder. Debattens centrale spørgsmål er, hvilke nye erkendelser disse perspektiver kan bidrage med til byhistorien? Kan de rykke ved de etablerede, strukturelle fortællinger om byhistorie eller skal de rettere betragtes som et supplement, der bidrager til at give denne historie mere liv og dybde? Kan eksempelvis det øgede fokus på spørgsmål om materialiseringen af urbane fællesskaber og identiteter bidrage til forståelsen af byens tilblivelse og vækst? Et andet og vigtigt aspekt ved den aktuelle vending inden for byhistorie er dens potentiale for tværfagligheden -eksempelvis samarbejdet mellem historie og arkæologi, hvor et fokus på urbanitet, identitet og praksis er aktuelt. Åbner fælles teoretiske inspirationskilder for et øget samarbejde og en øget integration mellem arkæologien og historien? Oplagt er naturligvis også koblingen mellem etnologiens fokus på materialiseringen af sociale gruppers kulturer og identiteter. Hvad betyder materialitetsperspektivet for samarbejdet mellem museer og universiteter, og for en forskningsmæssig aktivering af museernes historiske og arkæologiske samlinger?

Hver deltager præsenterer ganske kort (5-10 min) deres eget arbejde inden for området og deres erfaring med, hvordan et fokus på hverdag, materialitet og krop har bidraget til deres forskning. Efter en kort opsamling inviteres til en åben debat om emnet mellem paneldeltagerne og tilhørerne.

ABSTRACT. The starting point for this paper is the Great Northern War and the financial innovations that took place in Sweden to finance military operations. Large sections of the population became involved in funding the state when great volumes of new financial instruments such as fiat coins and notes as well as bonds were issued. This financial development can be characterized as a revolution that occurred in several European states at this time. Not least in England, strong growth took place in London's capital market, where more and more people were able to trade shares and bonds. The market was liquid, which allowed buyers and sellers to meet easily and there were opportunities for brokers to make money on the financial transactions. In France, under the auspices of John Law, similar attempts were made in the 1710s to reorganize the government’s finances. However, our knowledge of how these innovations affected economic life in Sweden is limited. Likewise, our knowledge is incomplete about how dynamic the financial system in Sweden was during the first half of the eighteenth century. By analyzing the financial developments on the local level, we can get a better picture of how people in the eighteenth century acted financially and what strategies they used to handle risk and new financial instruments. These results will then be related to overall questions about financial developments in both the Nordic region and other parts of Europe.

ABSTRACT. As a result of the changes in warfare that took place in Europe from the end of the 18th century, reforms within the military leadership and the establishment of specialized corps, too, had to be carried through. The introduction of more mobile, often much larger and between themselves more independent military units, with vast needs for supplies that must be planned for and transported from behind the lines, meant that the military leadership had to be more efficient and consistent than ever before. It also meant that the needs for intelligence and maps increased considerably.

In Sweden, Colonel Gustaf Wilhelm af Tibell, took the lead in shaping such a new military leadership and, in close connection to it, also setting up a new special corps, aimed at reconnaissance and counselling the military head-quarters at all levels, map the whole kingdom, and write the history of war. This highly professional and for its time modern corps - the Field Survey Corps - was established in 1805. af Tibell became its first Director, but in parallel also Aid-de-Camp and thus part of the absolute military leadership.

The presentation will discuss the role the Field Survey Corps came to play for the development of the Swedish army in terms of modernisation and professionalization in the beginning of the 19th century.

ABSTRACT.  

Thierry Godbille, François Fulconis and Gilles Pache (authors): Transatlantic slave trade linked the economies of Europe, Africa and the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries. This paper draws on historical documents, and studies conducted by specialists in economic history that stress the key roles played by different actors, but without explicit reference to global supply chain. We propose analyzing this phenomenon from the perspective of those logistical links established between the three principle areas: West Africa, the European continent, and the Americas. We will also examine the role of the providers ensuring maritime logistics (shipping, auxiliary transport) and the customers (farmers in the Americas, African warlords). The purpose of transatlantic slave trade was to supply Europe with products from the colonies and provide needed manpower for plantations in the New World. Key resources in each country were: (1) from Europe, fabric, wheat, jewelry, beads, alcohol and arms; (2) from Africa, slaves, mostly war prisoners from tribal strife; (3) from the Americas, principally sugar, coffee, cocoa, indigo, cotton, and tobacco. Stein was able to identify 500 French families who armed 2,800 ships bound for Africa. The objective was transporting slaves to American colonies for future sale, once there buying raw materials and then exporting those materials to Europe and along the way realizing a comfortable added value. This paper looks at roles played by key infrastructure aspects (European slave trade ports) and operations management (definition of optimal transport conditions). Historical documents demonstrate that transatlantic slave trade was based on codified organizational principles which were a developed and very important aspect of the slave trade enterprise. Counters (slave trading ports) in Africa served as hubs where slaves were grouped for export. Our analysis highlights the transatlantic slave trade and the presence of synchronized logistical flows with a process of mass transport that managed to maintain an intact workforce.

ABSTRACT. The seed to a major reform of international institutions was sown when the concept of human rights was written into the Charter of the United Nations Organization in 1945, promising international efforts to protect rights of individuals and possibly creating international law to this effect. What were Nordic reactions and contributions to establishing and further developing an international human rights system? And how did such norms and institutions feed back into the Nordic states and societies? In the literature outlining the evolution of the international human rights regime after 1945, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden are often referred to as leading forces in the creation of new international treaties, as well as institutions for monitoring state compliance (Lauren, 2011). At least since the 1960s, the Nordic countries have incorporated the objective of promoting human rights norms into their foreign policies and programs for development assistance, and forged an unique brand for themselves building upon the idea of internationalist solidarism (Browning, 2007). Yet the international activism has not always been reflected in a high visibility of human rights in domestic laws and politics. In a pioneering 1988 article, Allan Rosas concluded by calling on politicians and academics to pay more attention to “the implementation of human rights not only in other countries but in the Nordic countries themselves” (Rosas, 1988: 438). This panel marks the first attempt to chart the international and national histories of human rights in the Nordic countries.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Steven Jensen (Danish Institute for Human Rights, Denmark): Geographies of International Law: The Nordic Countries, Decolonization and the Emergence of International Human Rights, 1960-1970.
2. Linde Lindkvist (Lund University, Sweden): Making of the Neutral Child: The Nordic Countries, Save the Children and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1978-1989.
3. Hanne Hagtvedt Vik (University of Oslo, Norway) & Skage Alexander Østberg (University of Oslo, Norway): Why Virtuous? Explaining Swift Norwegian Ratifications of Human Rights Treaties in the 1980s.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Steven Jensen (Danish Institute of Human Rights): Geographies of International Law: The Nordic Countries, Decolonization and the Emergence of International Human Rights, 1960-1970. 

At the UN General Assembly in 1962, the Danish UN delegate Hermod Lannung declared that “The geography of international law has changed.” Lannung commented on the ongoing transformation of the international system of states from a hierarchical system based on empires to a system based on sovereign states worldwide (Pedersen 2015). Decolonization had created many new subjects of international law and this was not just changing international relations – clearly reflected at the United Nations – but also the basis for and the requirements of international lawmaking. The year 1962 proved a turning point for international human rights. Its breakthrough would happen over the next 5-6 years led by countries such as Jamaica, Liberia, Ghana, Philippines, Costa Rica and Senegal (Jensen 2016). Decolonization was pivotal to the emergence of international human rights law. This process caught leading Western powers off guard as they were dealing with the remnants of their imperial rule and colonial mentalities (Vattan 2015) or systemic domestic racism such as in the United States. Other western actors such as the small Nordic states did not have the same foreign policy restrictions. They served in various ways as bridge-builders to Global South actors both concerning human rights and the wider legal diplomacy at the United Nations. The proposed article will explore the Nordic legal diplomacy at the United Nations in the 1960s by looking at policies and interventions by Nordic countries or representatives (such as Hermod Lannung (Denmark), Hans Blix (Sweden), Max Jacobsen (Finland) etc.). The aim is to explore the Nordic countries’ role in the emergence of human rights before the so-called Western human rights revolution in the 1970s.

Linde Lindkvist (Uppsala University): Making of the Neutral Child: The Nordic Countries, Save the Children and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1978-1989. 

This paper explores the contribution of one Swedish NGO – Rädda Barnen International (RBI) – to the drafting of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. RBI was established in Geneva in 1979 as the international branch of the Swedish Save the Children. The organization’s initial aim was to evade the Cold War politics that haunted the major umbrella groups on child welfare (i.e. the International Union for Child Welfare and the Save the Children Alliance) and to establish direct links with specialized agencies like UNICEF, UNHCR and UNRWA, not least for the purpose of co-ordinating various relief efforts. But in the early 1980s, RBI unexpectedly moved its attention to the development of an international legal framework for children’s rights. In 1983, it was one the main actors in setting up an ad hoc working group to co-ordinate the NGO-community’s efforts to reach a binding instrument on children’s rights. Apart from unpacking some of the organization’s initiatives in this process, this paper seeks to shed light on the sudden shift from ‘relief’ to ‘rights.’ It highlights a few factors precipitating this move: the general increase in the codification of human rights at the UN of the late 1970s and early 1980s, the RBI’s desire to downplay the difference between domestic and overseas relief work, and, not least, the general indeterminacy of the concept of children’s rights.

Hanne Hagtvedt Vik & Skage Alexander Østberg (University of Oslo): Why Virtuous? Explaining Swift Norwegian Ratifications of Human Rights Treaties in the 1980s. 

The highly influential American human rights scholar Louis Henkin has pointed out how the American skepticism to ratify human rights treaties shows a basic isolationism. This skepticism has led to charges of a double moral stance, given repeated US support for human rights in various international contexts. Similar criticisms have recently befallen Norwegian and Nordic human rights policy. Norway has from the early 2000s used more time to ratify new human rights treaties and optional protocols, several decisions are pending. Activists and scholars have pointed out a Norwegian and Nordic paradox: strong international support for human rights, without rapid ratification of new international instruments (Langford & Schaffer 2014).This paper will compare Norwegian support for three key human rights treaties to examine a possible condition for the swift Norwegian treaty ratifications during the 1980s. We will ask: How thoroughly did different actors - diplomats, bureaucrats in various ministries, politicians and others – evaluate the domestic relevance of the UN torture convention, the ILO convention on indigenous peoples and the UN convention on the rights of the child? How significant were such assessments for Norwegian positions during the negotiations and the ratification processes? Can we for Norway, as in the case of Denmark, conclude that the system of legal dualism was “the prerequisite for the politics of virtue" (Christoffersen and Madsen 2011)? If so, might it be that the Norwegian role as a human rights champion could only be sustained as long as it was cost and risk free in a domestic context?

ABSTRACT. I efteråret 1956 blev den danske arkitekt Hans Henning Hansen sendt på en Unesco mission til Jugoslavien. Han skulle bistå de nationale myndigheder med planlægning og (gen)opbygning af skoler efter 2. Verdenskrigs ødelæggelser.

HHH var ikke den eneste arkitekt, som Unesco sendte ud i verden i disse år. I 1962 sponsorerede organisationen et forskningscenter i skolebyggeri i Bandur i Indonesien med 20 medarbejdere. Samtidig åbnede et tilsvarende i Sudan og i Mexico City.

Dette paper har fokus på det asiatiske center, og arbejdet med at bringe barnets skala ud til den tredje verden. De mange årsberetninger vidner om, at det ikke var en given – og enkel sag – at bringe vestlige tanker om fremtidens skolebyggeri ud til indbyggere og myndigheder i den 3. Verden.

Igennem de sidste 25-30 år har skolebyggeriet oplevet en stigende interesse fra historikernes side. Men grebet har hovedsageligt været nationalt, eller transnationalt inden for den vestlige eller anglo-saxiske verden. Dette paper udvider perspektivet til relationerne mellem den vestlige verden og den 3. verden, og det anlægger et perspektiv på arkitektur, som noget der gøres. Det er ”the making” i kontrast til ”the designing” for at parafrasere antropologen Tim Ingold, som er omdrejningspunktet for dette paper. Det viser, at byggeri i barnets skala kunne forstås meget forskelligt - og alligevel gensidigt afhængigt. Meaning-making var i høj grad en material sag med prototypeskoler og udarbejdelse og udsendelse af stribevise af rapporter og vejledninger. Til det formål rådede centeret over et stort bibliotek og eget trykkeri.

Oplægget bygger på rapporter fra de enkelte missioner og på centerets årsberetning i UNESCO’s arkiv.

ABSTRACT. Det forskningsmæssige fokus af mit paper til konferencen Nordisk Historikermøde 2017 til sessionen ”Mødet med historie - læremidler og rum” retter sig mod samarbejder mellem gymnasieskoler og museer og den læring, der opstår som resultat heraf hos de involverede elever, lærere og museumsinspektører. Mit bidrag vil komme med bud på svar til dette spørgsmål: - Hvad karakteriserer gymnasieelevers læringsoplevelse i undervisningsforløb, som inddrager et museum som læringsmiljø, og som deres lærere har udviklet og gennemfører sammen med museets inspektører? Mit paper vil omhandle resultater af et empirisk og sociologisk inspireret studie, som dannede grundlag for min ph.d. afhandling “Interface learning - New goals for museum and upper secondary school collaboration” (2014). Undersøgelsen var organiseret efter et mixed methods forskningsdesign med primær fokus på den kvalitative undersøgelse. Data hertil blev indsamlet gennem 29 interviews med elever, gymnasielærere og museumsinspektører. Supplerende data består af feltnotater og fotos fra partnerskabsmøder og elevers arbejde på museet samt af kvantitative data indsamlet gennem to online spørgeskemaundersøgelser sendt til og besvaret af alle undersøgelsens elever før og efter undervisningsforløbet på museet. Metoden for dataindsamling og analyse er delvist baseret på Generic Learning Outcomes-modellen. Studiet er teoretisk funderet i konstruktivistisk og socialkonstruktivistisk læringsteori samt Etienne Wengers teori om praksisfællesskabers læring, sammenhæng og dynamik. Undersøgelsen viser, at gymnasieelever opnår et bredt spektrum af læringsresultater ved at arbejde med skolerelaterede opgaver i museets uformelle læringsmiljø. Læringsresultaterne varierer dog mærkbart, afhængigt af hvordan og i hvor høj grad undervisningsforløbets pædagogiske og didaktiske tilrettelæggelse tager højde for og indarbejder det særlige læringsmiljø, der opstår i grænsefladen mellem det formelle og det uformelle læringsmiljø.

ABSTRACT. Konspirationsteorier er populære som aldrig før. Mange elever finder emnet elementært spændende og i de ældste klassetrin vil mange gerne skrive opgave om konspirationer og konspirationsteorier. Motivationen er således på forhånd høj, men ikke desto mindre er det også et problematisk eller ligefrem anstrengende emne at tage op, idet man som lærer ofte må starte med at punktere en del myter og gang på gang mere eller mindre ufrivilligt ser sig indrulleret i endeløse og anstrengende diskussioner om sandt eller falsk. Det er ikke helt usædvanligt at støde på elever, der faktisk tror på konspirationsteorier. Jeg vil i paperet argumentere for, at emnet er velegnet til at lave problemorienteret undervisning, at undervisningen kan kobles direkte med kompetenceområdet ’historiebrug’ samt at emnet egner sig aldeles glimrende til at træne elevernes kildekritiske kompetencer. Men undervisningen må gribes an på en særlig måde for at der kan arbejdes problembaseret med stoffet. Med baggrund i nyere forskning i konspirationsteorier vil jeg fremsætte et konfliktteoretisk bud på, hvad det er for aspekter man som lærer kan inddrage i arbejdet med fænomenet konspirationsteorier. Formålet med undervisningsforløbet bør være, i fællesskab med eleverne, at undersøge hvorfor og hvordan konspirationsteorier overhovedet opstår, hvordan de er opstået i tidens løb samt at forsøge at finde svar på, hvorfor både enkeltpersoner, magthavere og grupper bruger eller tror på konspirationsteorier. Eleverne skulle gerne, inden for rammerne af et funktionelt kildebegreb, oparbejde en forståelse af, at konspirationsteorier ikke kan bruges som kilder til at belyse hvordan bestemte hændelser er foregået, men at de siger noget væsentligt om, hvordan eftertiden har fortolket store og skelsættende begivenheder.

ABSTRACT. This is a second session dealing with Nordic cartels. Also in this session the empirical focus will be on Nordic cartels and other interfirm collaboration in the Nordic countries, but in this session special attention will be drawn to the cartels’ activities, strategies and developments in the face of i) inside and outside political pressures, ii) international developments, and iii) government attitudes and policies towards - and interplay with - these cartels. Strong cartels can have influence on both domestic and international politics; a factor which was increasingly recognized since the interwar period and led to the first attempts to monitor and regulate their activities. However, not all cartels were strong and also international cartels were exposed to the political and economic situation both on the national and on international level. As a result, they inevitable have to adapt to the changing environment and to various political decisions, events and forces. In these three papers, question related to these issues will be addressed, with a particular emphasis on individual cartels’ strategies and activities in interplay with government policies.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Elina Kuorelahti (University of Helsinki) The European Timber Exporters' Convention (ETEC) 1935-1939, "small giants" and their place in international cartels.
2. Espen Storli & Pål Thonstad Sandvik (NTNU Trondheim) The Scandinavian states and the international oil cartels before 1940.
3. Harald Espeli (BI, Norge) ‘Staten og de norske forsikringskartellene 1875-1990.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Elina Kuorelahti (University of Helsinki): The European Timber Exporters' Convention (ETEC) 1935-1939, "small giants" and their place in international cartels. 

In this paper I will ask how political opportunities and threats in the 1930s shaped the international cartels, by investigating the case of European Timber Exporters' Convention (ETEC) 1935-1939, this paper examines "small giants" (which Finland and Sweden and their large forestry sector is many times described) and their place in international cartels. Instead of "bigger than their real size" conclusions, which is a concept popping up in the Nordic business history quite regularly, this paper shows that the position of Finland, the biggest timber exporter in Europe, was, in fact, weak in the ETEC. The vast archival sources show that during the long negotiation process of the ETEC from 1931 to 1935, the timber exporters were against any international timber cartels with Sweden, Soviet Union and four South-East European countries. Nevertheless, the argument of political necessity won, and the country participated in the negotiations and eventually joined the cartel as the biggest exporter country. The reluctance of the exporters towards the ETEC continued throughout the cartel's existence. Yet, as a many times repeated fact in the Finnish timber exporters' association, Finland could not be the one to break the cartel for political reasons, ie the need to reinforce the vitally important public image of the country as bridge-building, neutral Nordic country, promoting European collaboration and peace in trade and politics. The phenomenon of reluctant exporters forced, firstly, in an international cartel negotiation, and secondly, living up the expectations of the cartel, created an interesting situation for the cartel within Finland. Among these were bank-assisted cartel control, hiding the cumulative over-production, and something what I call "soft coercion" practiced by the government.

**

Espen Storli & Pål Thonstad Sandvik (NTNU Trondheim): The Scandinavian states and the international oil cartels before 1940 

Before World War II, there were a number of international cartels, both formal and informal, which dominated the international oil industry. In this paper the aim is to investigate how the three Scandinavian countries Denmark, Sweden and Norway responded to these cartels, how they viewed the oil cartels, and to what extent they implemented policies targeted against the oil cartels.

**

Harald Espeli (BI, Norge) ‘Staten og de norske forsikringskartellene 1875-1990 

Presentasjonen vil drøfte den statlige forsikringspolitikken gjennom drøyt 100 år. Hovedvekt legges på brann/skadeforsikring fra 1876 til 1982 der staten både var regulant og forsikringsaktør gjennom Norges Brannkasse som vekslet mellom å være konkurrent til og samarbeidspartner med kartellet. Dernest statens forhold til livsforsikringskartellet som vokste frem i en symbiose med reguleringsmyndighetene fra 1.verdenskrig. Samtidig var det staten som regulant som brøt ned livsforsikring/pensjonskartellet på 1980-tallet. I tillegg vil statens holdning til sjøforsikring og sjøforsikringskartellet, etter hvert kjent som CEFOR bli behandlet. Den statlige politikken her var på mange måter en kontrast til de to andre forsikringsmarkedene.

ABSTRACT. History departments throughout the world are facing unprecedented challenges, as they seek to respond to changes in student bodies, the economics of higher education, governmental policies, and society itself. While the situations of historians in different countries vary in many ways, there is much to be gained by instituting a transnational dialogue about these changes and possible responses to them. It is the goal of this session to provide the occasion for such a discussion.

Researchers from Finland and Sweden will present papers about the challenges currently facing those teaching college history in their countries. They will consider such issues as students' conceptions of history, critical thinking during supervision of undergraduate history theses, and changing forms of supervision in the training of Ph.D. students.

The issues raised in these presentations will serve as the basis for a structured discussion, in which attendees compare the problems, assets, and strategies of college history instructors.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Marjaana Puurtinen (University of Turku, Finland), Mikko Kainulainen (University of Turku, Finland): & Arja Virta (University of Turku, Finland): What is ’history’, anyway? Addressing university students’ views on their discipline
2. Stefan Ekecrantz (Stockholm University, Sweden): Critical thinking in undergraduate History - Pros and cons of a signature pedagogy
3. David Ludvigsson (Linköping University, Sweden): The History Seminar and the Supervisor: Changing Patterns of Supervision of History Ph.D. Students in Sweden

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Marjaana Puurtinen (University of Turku, Finland), Mikko Kainulainen (University of Turku, Finland): & Arja Virta (University of Turku, Finland): What is ’history’, anyway? Addressing university students’ views on their discipline

As many who teach history at university are well aware, students entering higher education typically need to undergo a somewhat dramatic shift in their views on the concept of “history”. At university, students’ previous ideas of a school discipline telling stories about the past should gradually start to change towards a more complex relationship between the past and the present – together with increasing awareness on how historians themselves play a significant role in the formation of this relationship. However, the within-domain discussions on theory of history, or historiography, do not in all cases seem to reach the students: they may study these topics during compulsory courses, but as some studies have demonstrated, the earlier, discipline-based conceptions may continue to dominate and guide the students while they, for instance, operate with historical sources in and out of academic context. We argue that in order to best support the students’ growth towards professional-like historical thinking, and to properly target teaching in this respect, we need to make explicit and address students’ various meanings for this key concept. In this report, we present a series of two empirical studies that aim to do exactly this. In a pilot study, 23 Finnish history students were interviewed on their views on this domain, and four qualitatively different views, with obviously varying consequences in how the students would do historical research, were identified. During fall 2016, eighty first-year history students from a Finnish university will respond to similar questions in an essay form prior to a course on the nature of (academic) history. Importantly, the students will self-evaluate their own essays after the course. With this project, we hope to highlight the importance of developing theoretically grounded and evidence-based teaching practices in higher education, and report on university-level collaboration between historians and educational scientists.

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Stefan Ekecrantz (Stockholm University, Sweden): Critical thinking in undergraduate History - Pros and cons of a signature pedagogy

The concept of critical thinking is pivotal in academia. Many see it as the very core of intellectual thought and the primary learning outcome of higher education. In addition to its universal merits, modern society presents challenges that arguably make this potential outcome more urgent than ever. One problem in critical thinking research and general discourse is that the concept is so broadly defined that it includes virtually anything and everything of virtue. In this paper, a narrower concept of discipline-specific, academic critical thinking is suggested as a framework for discussing critical thinking during supervision of undergraduate History theses. This is done by keeping the object/analysandum of critical thought separated in a hierarchy of (1) Self, (2) Other's research, and (3) Data/world. When disciplinary differences are discussed, the focus is often on a particular discipline's strengths rather than its potential weaknesses. With regards to critical thinking, historians and their students are expected to be especially proficient in critical analysis of primary sources, i.e. criticality vis-à-vis "data/world". However, compared to disciplines that rely more heavily on secondary sources, it is possible that our students are less apt in critical thought regarding "other's research". The latter is perhaps even more important in relation to societal needs of academics that are what has been labeled "competent laypersons" (Battersby, 2014), that is, something akin to polyhistors that can make informed judgements about research beyond their own expertise. In this paper I suggest that this might most effectively be approached through the student's own thesis work, through discussions about formal logic, argument analysis and possible biases on the level of "self".

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David Ludvigsson (Linköping University, Sweden): The History Seminar and the Supervisor: Changing Patterns of Supervision of History Ph.D. Students in Sweden

The presentation will explore Swedish experiences of three different models of Ph.D. supervision in history. Traditionally, the Ph.D. student presented texts at the seminar and it was at the seminar, in the presence of a large group of Ph.D. students, that the (male) supervisor gave advice to the author. However, in recent years new patterns for supervision have emerged. For a period, a common form was that the Ph.D. student had only one supervisor (always a full professor) and met with that person for intensive supervision. The current norm, supported by state and institution regulations, is that a team of supervisors shares responsibility for the Ph.D. student. Thus, at least three models of supervision have been in use during recent years: group supervision, one-to-one dyadic supervision, and team supervision. The changed patterns of supervision have important consequences. One is that of a changed role for the seminar, that is the traditional “laboratory” of historical studies. Another is that team supervision provides students with a broader range of intellectual and social support. A third is that the power relations between Ph.D. student and supervisor(s) have changed, from that of slave-master to something much more complex with a range of relations within the group, where power relations between supervisors may sometimes be problematic. The paper will discuss what problems were solved by the different forms of supervision, and which problems were created. The paper is based on a range of materials including interviews, seminar protocols, and dissertation prefaces.

ABSTRACT. Cassius Dio occupies a central position in Roman historiography. He is the only historian who follows the developments of Rome’s political institutions over more than a thousand years. His 80-book Roman History narrates events from the foundation of Rome to circa 229 CE. This makes him an indispensable source for Rome’s history, particularly in the Late Republic, the reign of Augustus, and the second and third centuries CE, until 229 CE, when he retired from Roman politics.

Traditionally, work on Dio has focused on one or several contiguous books. Contrary to this approach, the whole text should be considered in order to understand Dio’s approaches to and assessments of different time-periods; he is not just simply a writer of narrative history. This session will focus on turning-points/transformation in Dio’s narrative: emphasis will be placed on Dio and his Roman History in its historiographical setting, thus allowing us to link and understand the different parts of his work. We propose that Dio had a political agenda: the entire Roman History is centred on his vision of an idealised form of Roman monarchical government. This is already highly perceptible in the books on the Republic, where free political competition is criticised as destabilising the state. In the later, imperial books, Dio focuses on individual emperors and dynasties to develop a theory of the best kind of monarchy and monarchy’s typical problems.

Dio is the perfect starting point for a new Roman history that uses developments over hundreds of years to unearth larger patterns of change and continuity. This creates a unique sense of the past and allows us to see Roman history through a specific lens.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Carsten Hjort Lange (Aalborg University, Denmark): Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: the Late Republic and Augustus
2. Jesper Majbom Madsen (University of Southern Denmark, Denmark): Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: Towards Dynastic Rule
3. Mads O. Lindholmer (University of Glasgow, UK): Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: Imperialism in Dio’s Roman Republic
4. Jakob Christian Fløe (Støvring Gymnasium, Denmark): Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: the second and third centuries CE

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: the Late Republic and Augustus  
Carsten H. Lange, AAU, Assistant Professor

In book 52 Cassius Dio emphasised that in 29 BCE the Romans reverted to monarchical government (52.1.1): “Such were the achievements of the Romans and such their suffering under the kingship (basileia), under the demokratia [Republic], and under the dominion of a few (dynasteiai), during a period of seven hundred and twenty‐five years”. Dio is however inconsistent on the precise date for the return to monarchy: he identifies it with both the battle of Actium (50.1.2; 51.1.1‐2; 56.30.5) and the settlement of 27 BCE (53.17.1, 19.1). Individual dynasteiai are not stable forms of rule and thus inevitably create the conditions for stasis, from the Gracchi onwards. Importantly, for Dio the Late Republican narrative is about the transition from republic to monarchy: the gradual collapse of the demokratia could only be resolved by the coming of Augustus, the model emperor. This is reflected in Dio’s narrative: for example, in trying to answer why Dio ignores the civil war aspect of Brutus’ triumph (contrary to custom), the answer seems to be that on the post‐Mutina developments he is primarily interested in the Senate’s breach with Young Caesar, and thus the propriety of their voting Decimus Brutus a triumph is of lesser interest.

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Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: Towards Dynastic Rule  
Jesper M. Madsen, Associate Professor, SDU 

Cassius Dio focuses on political and governmental turning points: one such transformation happened during the reign of Augustus. The turning point is the shift from monarchical rule to dynastic intentions. Augustus ruled the empire as consul and military leader. Later from 23 BCE he stopped being a consul and instead turned to tribunician powers (the right to veto and propose laws to the assemblies), apart from retaining an imperium. Dynastic rule was already was already well under way during the reign of Augustus: first Augustus’ friend Agrippa and later Tiberius, his adoptive son and successor, received a lesser version of tribunician powers as well as imperium. In reality, this meant that the princeps was able to hand over power to someone within the family. When Augustus died, it was difficult to bypass the successor he had himself chosen. Dio was a firm supported of monarchy, but at the same time he despised dynastic rule. Consequently, he criticizes in unmistakable terms most of the emperors who followed in the footsteps of their fathers or other male relatives. This paper focuses on Dio’s preferred form of monarchical rule and addresses examples of why dynastic rule cannot work as a stable form of government in a state the size of Rome.

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Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: Imperialism in Dio’s Roman Republic  
Mads O. Lindholmer, University of Glasgow, MPhil student, Scotland

Scholarship has often either focussed only on specific institutional aspects of Dio’s Early Rome, or asserted that this period is an idealised contrast to the Late Republic. This alleged moral decline in the transition from Early and Mid to Late Republic is almost canonical in Roman literature. In fact, the development of the Republic in Dio is far more complex. This paper argues that Dio organised Republican imperialism into three distinct phases. First, the Early Republic is significantly less idealised than other sources, as leading individuals damage Rome through imperialism used to further personal objectives. Even during the Middle Republic, destructive imperialism as part of aristocratic competition is clearly present among Roman generals. In the Late Republic, imperialism becomes even more corrupted as it is represented primarily as a tool for the internal competition of the dynasts and their quest for further influence and glory. What is striking is the lack of a clear and more radical transformation of Roman imperialism in the Late Republic as a contrast to earlier idealised times, seen so often in the parallel sources. I argue that this rejection of tradition was a manifestation of an overarching interpretative framework centred on competition. Dio explored the problem of imperialism with sophistication, and in so doing asserted both the transition heralded by the Late Republic and his own originality in breaking with established traditions of clear moral degeneration. The historian chose to present destructive imperialism as a central problem that dominated the history of the Roman Republic even from its inception. As such, Dio not only rejected idealised traditions of Early Rome in a distinctive way. In addition, he incorporated this rejection into a coherent explanation of how imperialism, used for competition, was closely connected to the Republic’s transformation and the transition to empire.

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Cassius Dio and the Transformation of Rome: the second and third centuries CE  
Jakob Christian Fløe, teacher, Støvring Gymnasium   

Monarchic rule was without a doubt the superior governmental system in the eyes of Cassius Dio, but he regarded the dynastic succession as its greatest, potentially ruinous defect. In Dio’s opinion this flaw continued to wreak havoc on the roman world until the second century, when Nerva and his heirs established the transformative “adoption system” – a political device that in practice would be used by the emperors to bypass inadequate blood relatives when searching for a suitable successor, whom instead would be found among the accomplished senatorial elite. This system guaranteed a prosperous and stable golden period, in which the emperors secured the people’s libertas (freedom) and maintained both parrhesia (freedom of speech) and the traditional close ties to the senate, while acting as primus inter pares (first among equals). The harmonious age concluded with the return of the dynastical rule when Marcus Aurelius died and his powers were transferred to his son Commodus, a turning point in which Dio remarks: “our history now descends from a kingdom of gold to one of iron and rust” (72[71].36.4).  Commodus would only be the first in a long line of power‐hungry, brutal, incompetent, maniacal and “less roman” rulers and usurpers who transformed the third century to a period of strife, decline and destruction, wherein the military became increasingly powerful at the expense of the senate and the roman people. This paper focuses on the systematic divides between the two centuries and how Dio attempt to present the “adoption system” of the second century as a practical and sustainable answer to both the dangers of dynastic rule and to the tumultuous developments in the third century (his own time.