ABSTRACT. Since the turn of the twenty-first century there is a renewed interest in researching the individual, a development which is commonly defined as the biographical turn. Historical biography is an old practice, going back to antiquity and the reformation, with a strong but often debated relationship with history as an academic discipline. As a result of the “turn”, biography is no longer under-theorized, nor marginalized within historiography. Biography can be seen as the meeting point for many of the questions posed by historians today. One of these is gender, and gender can be seen as one of the salient factors in the “reformation” of biography. The round table discusses how women’s and gender history has influenced biographical writing and research particularly in the Nordic countries by paying attention to e.g. how the relationship between private and public is problematized and how the concept of relationality is discussed in current scholarship. There are, however, still challenges and imbalance in terms of women’s visibility both within academic and more popular biographical writing: women are still in the minority as protagonists. On the other hand, from a gender perspective men continue to be unproblematized main characters of most biographies. The roundtable also seeks to develop strategies to meet these biases.

This roundtable is based on a joint Nordic book project “Biography, Gender, and History: Nordic Perspectives” which will be published by the series of cultural history (University of Turku) in December 2016 as well as the on-going project “Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon” led by professor Maria Sjöberg at the University of Gothenburg.

ABSTRACT. Following the medical developments of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, physical and mental impairments have been largely medicalised and institutionalised. For a long time, they were seen as problems of the individual and the society, which has resulted in the need to heal, rehabilitate, and normalize – or, reform – persons with disabilities. However, such strong medical framework and discourse did not yet exist in the medieval or early modern periods. Our intention is to ask if and how the idea of 'reforming' deviant bodies and minds is visible in the sources of the time. The treatment, care and healing practices were influenced by ambivalent understandings of the interconnections between the mind and the body and the aetiology of disabilities and illnesses, in which religion played a strong yet varying role. The papers presented in this session discuss the topic of ‘reformation’ from disabled to healthy in the context of late medieval and early modern Europe. In particular, we explore the question of a need to heal or ‘normalize’ people with physical and mental impairments from the communal point of view. What kinds of conditions were thought to require healing and what kinds of practices were involved in transforming the disabled, sick and wounded into ‘health’? Were the possible attempts at reformation of disabled persons imposed by the community or initiated by the impaired persons themselves? What kind of a role did work, economy, and religious ideas play?

PRESENTATIONS

1. Jenni Kuuliala (University of Tampere, Finland): Reforming Bodies, Reforming Communities? Miraculous Cures in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe
2. Riikka Miettinen (University of Tampere, Finland): Healing the Mad. The Treatment and Care of the Insane in Early Modern Sweden and Finland

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS

Jenni Kuuliala, PhD, University of Tampere: Reforming Bodies, Reforming Communities? Miraculous Cures in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe

Cures of various physical conditions have always formed the largest part of recorded miracles. This paper seeks to analyse such cures, recorded in the late Middle Ages and Early Modern period, from the viewpoint of dis/ability history. In the narratives, it was important to highlight the unfortunate consequences of physical infirmity and the wondrous and joyous nature of the miraculous cure. This paper asks how the idea of reforming a person into health was portrayed within this framework. Was cure personal or communal, and which aspects of correcting and mending of deviant bodies were emphasised? A specific focus will be on the person’s role in the community and how healing possibly restored the miracle beneficiary’s status and social roles

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Riikka Miettinen, PhD, University of Tampere: Healing the Mad. The Treatment and Care of the Insane in Early Modern Sweden and Finland

Like elsewhere in early modern Europe, the main providers of mental health care and treatment of the insane in the early modern Swedish Realm were the kin and local communities and the clergy. However, in standard histories of psychiatry and medicine, and in general in the field of history of madness, the focus has typically been only on the official or learned medicine, hospitals and measures taken by doctors while the early modern ‘lay’ forms of care and healing (with the exception of magic) and spiritual physic have been largely ignored. Many historians have criticized the role played by the emerging psychiatric profession in the treatment of the insane in early modern Europe, and emphasized the blend of scientific, magical, and religious therapies practised in ‘healing’ the insane. The paper discusses the ways those considered insane were treated and cared for in early modern Sweden and Finland, with a focus on the seventeenth-century rural communities and the treatment provided by the kin and neighbourhood community and the clergy. The material consists of lower court records and other judicial documents that at times describe, typically in passing, the care and healing of the insane as well as printed lay advice- and guidebooks intended for peasant households. In the large Swedish Realm, at the time sparsely-populated periphery, vast majority of the insane resided within the village communities and were taken care of treated by their kin, neighbours, folk healers and the clergy, for doctors and other medical experts were as few and far between as hospitals or other institutions in which the insane could have been confined. As according to worldview and aetiology of the time, God played a significant role in regard to illnesses, including mental disorders, the spiritual treatment and pastoral care provided by the clergy was of great importance.

ABSTRACT. Between 1906 and 1921 all Nordic states came to introduce equal and ‘universal’ suffrage. Finland was first, Sweden last. However, in reality the right to vote was still far from universal. In all Nordic states large numbers of people remained shut out from the democratic process. The vast majority of them were disqualified from voting or holding office because of age. But other categories were excluded too: residents with foreign citizenship, people that were put under guardianship, people who were bankrupt, served time in penitentiary or were permanently dependent on poor relief, and men that had not completed their military service. Gradually, in the subsequent years most of these voting right restrictions were abolished. Also, age limits changed.   This panel, consisting of seven researchers from different fields of research, will discuss the development, continuation and abolishment of suffrage restrictions in the Nordic states – particularly Finland, Norway and Sweden – and their relations to social, political and economic citizenship. Besides exploring the principles and practices of suffrage restrictions, our team will analyze how the gradual expansion of suffrage has come to redefine the borders of citizenship. For example, we will discuss what qualifications – moral, cognitive, etc. - have been deemed as necessary for citizens to gain political as well as social rights. Also, we will discuss if democracy may be said to represent the non-voting. And if so – how, and through what institutional arrangements? Further, how have people without the right to vote made claims about representation and been visualized in public debates, press, media, parliament, government inquiries, and how have they been represented in practice by professionals, institutions or kin? A comparison between the Nordic countries will also help us in exploring connections between suffrage and welfare state development more generally.  

ABSTRACT. The vigorous recent debates over the future of mining in Greenland have been intimately linked to visions of Greenland’s future as a nation. Yet mining has a history in Greenland dating back over a century, involving actors from Denmark and far beyond in addition to thousands of indigenous Greenlanders. Mining reformed and remade the social, political, and economic relations between indigenous Greenlanders and Danish colonial authorities in addition to remaking the physical geography of the island. The aim of this panel is twofold. Specifically, we ask how the history of mining can provide a fresh window into the political and social history of modern Greenland, including the struggle for self-determination. More generally, we pose wider questions about the historiographic challenges of incorporating mining – often seen as a paradigmatically “Western” activity – into histories of decolonization that are sensitive to the multiple sites in which indigenous agency could be exercised, without losing sight of the unequal distribution of power. Janina Priebe asks how representations of the coal-mining settlement of Qullissat in the Greenlandic media invoked narratives of modernization, and which actors were attributed agency in its success (and ultimately failure). Peder Roberts focuses on the role of the Maamorilik lead-zinc mine (operative 1973-1990) as a site of Greenlandic resistance to Danish administrative authority, but also to transnational capitalism, in the context of the Home Rule movement. Inge Seiding offers a broader perspective on mining – and fish processing – as everyday activities that constituted indigenous Greenlandic lives, and how such a perspective can reframe notions of agency within narratives of industrialization and modernization. Comment is provided by Frank Sejersen, whose recent work on notions of indigenous agency and “future-making” provides an important tool for narrating colonial and postcolonial change.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Janina Priebe (Umeå University, Sweden): An ambivalent story of modernization – Media narratives about the future of the Qullissat coalmine in Greenland, 1942-1968
2. Peder Roberts (KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden): Resistance and Reformation at Maamorilik, 1973-1990
3. Inge Seiding (Greenland National Archives, Greenland): Other stories. A new focus in historiographical narratives about industrial Greenland in the 20th century

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

An ambivalent story of modernization – Media narratives about the future of the Qullissat coalmine in Greenland, 1942-1968

Janina Priebe

The closure of the settlement of Qullissat and the adjacent coalmine on Disko Island in 1972 is today a symbol of the Danish neglect of the Greenlanders’ self-determination and their subjection under a radically changed policy of modernization in the post-war period. However, the coalmine had once been at the center of visions of an industrial, autonomous Greenland in the 1940s and during the 1950s – even as authorities in Copenhagen recognized its limitations due to the quality of the coal and the physical geography of the area. This paper discusses Qullissat’s role in the modernization narrative as it was presented in the Greenlandic media. It analyzes the coverage on the mining town in the Greenland newspaper Atuagagdliutit/Grønlandsposten between 1942 and 1968, when the final decision for the shutdown was taken. How did the pro-reform media frame Qullissat’s future over these years and to what extent did these representations mirror changing political rationalities rather than the dwindling productivity of the mine? To what extent was Qullissat seen as emblematic of a wider process of modernization? Which actors were granted agency in defining and realizing that process? The material suggests that the future of Qullissat was framed in very different ways in order to fit in with a transient modernization narrative. From being the epitome of Greenland’s hidden riches in the soil, the basis for autonomous supply and a diverse, stable economy introduced by Danish authorities, Qullissat was eventually framed as a loss-making Greenlandic venture.

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Resistance and Reformation at Maamorilik, 1973-1990

Peder Roberts

This paper focuses on economic and political relations embedded within, and made possible by, the Maamorilik lead-zinc mine in north Greenland (operative 1973-1990). The central argument is that the mine functioned as a site not only of indigenous Greenlandic resistance to Danish colonial rule, within the wider context of calls for Home Rule – achieved in 1979 – but also of resistance to transnational capitalism. In 1977 indigenous Greenlandic workers at the mine launched a strike against the policy of paying Greenland-born workers less than those born elsewhere, echoing the “birthplace criterion” for government work in Greenland. The Greenlandic Workers Association positioned their striking members as workers in a contest with capital, but also as indigenous persons in a contest with colonial authority. Support for the strike came from both labor unions in Denmark (and beyond) and from indigenous groups, notably the newly-formed Inuit Circumpolar Council. The ultimate success of the strike was due in large part to the success of the Association in mobilizing these two strands of opposition within a narrative that sought greater equality in power relations without rejecting the mine altogether – an assertion that indigenous Greenlanders were active agents in industrialization. The paper concludes with reflections on this episode can contribute to a more nuanced understanding of the political strategies through which indigenous agency can be asserted through mining as well as in opposition to mining, while remaining attentive to the limitations posed by long-term structural inequality

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Other stories. A new focus in historiographical narratives about industrial Greenland in the 20th century 

Inge Seiding

A dominating historiographical narrative is sustaining persistent stereotypes of Greenlanders as victims of change often pitted against a contrasting idyllic narrative of a traditional, precolonial past. However, as argued in the paper, this does not fully represent the lived experience in Greenland during post-war industrialization and colonial, as well as postcolonial, modernization reforms. Recent research suggest that stories about the everyday lives of wage-working Greenlanders, in mines but also at fish processing plants, are important narratives that have yet to be included in the historical master narratives about Greenland. While stories of loss and estrangement from traditional ways of life certainly are a part of this narrative, it is essential to recognize the agency of indigenous Greenlanders in driving social and cultural change. The political struggles of labourers and wageworkers occurred within the wider context of Greenlandic efforts to renegotiate the political and economic relationship with Denmark. The paper suggests how we, as researchers and historiographical narrators, have an important task in recognizing and including these stories about the challenges and opportunities faced by these Greenlandic ‘future-makers’. It concludes with some brief reflections on how the particular case of Greenland provides insights relevant to understanding the historical relationship between industry and indigenous agency more broadly.

ABSTRACT. Nature features prominently in Nordic history, culture, and physical geography. The mountains, the sea, and the forests may seem to be old enough to predate history, entering into human history only through the longue duree. But nature is not without a history and new natures are continuously produced through human technology and activities. This idea is currently framed as the Anthropocene, which is under consideration for adoption as an official geological epoch. This proposal is of particular interest to historians, as it would be the such era that fully resides within the domain of historical scholarship.

This roundtable session asks whether there can be such a thing as a Nordic Anthropocene and offers insights into the productive ways in which the meeting point of environment and technology has been and could be used in illuminating the question of the Anthropocene and its implications for mainstream historical scholarship.

The panel consists of five scholars who have all been active at this intersection of histories in the last decade. They will discuss experiences from their own research as well as their view on the field as a whole. We will develop the idea of New Natures as a historical concept, demonstrating how nature is continually produced through human activity. Aligning with the congress theme, we thus explore how technology has been a crucial component in reshaping culture and environment in the history of the Nordic countries.

Dolly Jørgensen will serve as moderator for the roundtable session. Each participant will have a 5-minute introduction where they discuss the main panel theme with reference to their specific research interests, followed by short, structured questions that all panelists answer before we open up for a larger discussion with the audience.

ABSTRACT. København var en af de stærkest befæstede byer i Norden bevogtet af en garnison på flere tusinde mand. Hertil var den base for den store danske flåde og permanent hjem for hundredevis af matroser. Hæren og flåden havde en afgørende rolle i byens kriminalitetsbekæmpelse og de to institutioner drev fængslerne for de mandlige straffefanger. Denne position i retsplejen havde de med god grund, for soldaterne og matroserne dominerede fuldstændigt kriminaliteten i byen og leverede dermed også langt størsteparten af straffefangerne. De to papers vil se på de miljøer som skabte denne kriminalitet med base i hære og flåden.

OPLÆG:

1. Tyge Krogh (Rigsarkivet): "Soldaters kriminalitet i København i 1700-tallet."
2. Johan Heinsen (Aalborg University): "Enslaved by the State: Convicts in early modern Copenhagen."
3. Jørgen Mührmann-Lund (Aarhus Stadsarkiv): "Forprang, fusk og hasardspil."

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS

Tyge Krogh (seniorforsker, dr.phil. Rigsarkivet) Soldaters kriminalitet i København i 1700-tallet 

1700-tallets Europa var fyldt med store stående hære, som for størstedelen var garnisoneret i stærkt befæstede hovedstæder og andre strategisk vigtige byer. De mange soldater i deres farverige uniformer var en del af bybilledet, men de prægede i høj grad også byernes kriminalitet. Dette paper vil beskrive besiddelseskriminaliteten i København og soldaternes dominerende rolle heri. Især omkring 1750 blev mange såkaldte tyvebander optrevlede. Med udgangspunkt i disse bander vil de kriminelle miljøer blive undersøgt. Der argumenteres for at den omfattende kriminalitet var en følge af de garnisonerede soldaters ringe levevilkår som deltids løsarbejdere, af den strenge disciplin de var underlagt, samt det specielle rekrutteringssystem hvor staterne foretrak at finde soldaterne i udlandet og lokkede med store beløb i hvervepenge. På denne baggrund tegnes konturerne af en kriminel lejesoldat kultur på tværs af Europas stående hære. 

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Johan Heinsen (lektor, AAU) Enslaved by the State: Convicts in early modern Copenhagen 

The term “slavery” is most often associated with the large transatlantic flows of bound labour, but early modern Scandinavians also used this term to identify another type of unfreedom: hard penal labour. All over both the DanishNorwegian empire as well as its Swedish counterpart, convicts carried out sentences that were designed to render them productive to the state. Thus, in the centuries before the advent of the modern prison, labour was the primary mode of punishment in Scandinavia. This paper focuses on the convicts doing hard labour for the Navy in Copenhagen. It pays special attention to their backgrounds and the criminal cultures they came from. Finally, the paper discusses the convicts’ responses to their enslavement by the state: their ever present attempts at escaping bondage.

ABSTRACT. 2017 marks 100 years since Denmark sold the three West Indian islands of St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix to the USA. To commemorate the centennial, the Danish National Archives have carried out a major project to digitally scan all its records concerning the colony. It is recognized as one of the most detailed colonial records in the world. In the spring of 2017, these five million image files will become available online.

The online archive will have a reformative impact on research in the field of Danish West Indian history. To mark the beginning of the process, this double panel session will present both the Danish National Archives digitization project and online facilities, and five research papers based on the records from the online archive. The common focus of the papers is the Danish West Indies during slavery, a topic that has been growing both in methodological and theoretical sophistication and in volume during the last two decades. The papers will examine the development of slave laws, the abolition of the slave trade, the status of free colored people of African descent and the trade in textiles as an example of infrastructures linking rural Europe with slavery in the West Indies.

Participants: 1. Niklas Thode Jensen 2. Gunvor Simonsen 3. Louise Sebro 4. Poul Olsen

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Niklas Thode Jensen, PhD, archivist, Danish National Archives, Copenhagen

Digitizing the Danish West Indies: Goals and challenges of the Danish National Archives’ project to put its West Indian records online

In February 2017, the Danish National Archives (DNA) will release 5 million digital images of records from the former Danish West Indies (US Virgin Islands). This will be part of the commemoration of the centennial of the transfer of the islands to the USA in 1917. This project to digitally scan all the DNA’s records concerning the Danish West Indies has been running since 2013 and is funded by the AP Møller Foundation and the Danish Ministry of Culture. This paper will present the goals, means and challenges of the project with the aim to contribute to a broader discussion on Danish commemoration and heritage related to Atlantic colonialism and slavery. The most important goal of the project is to increase the accessibility of the records, particularly for the population in the US Virgin Islands, who have had little access to the records since the transfer to the US. However, access in itself is not enough. First, the digital images are not searchable without tagging with words that signify their content and second most of the records are in Danish. Accordingly, the DNA are trying to harness the powers of crowdsourcing (the typing of records by volunteers) on both sides of the Atlantic to cope with the enormous task of tagging and, even more so, translation. This is not only a technical challenge but also a social one, because it will demand the creation of a self-sustaining community of crowdsourcers on both sides of the Atlantic.

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Gunvor Simonsen, Assistant Professor, Saxo Institute, Department of History, University of Copenhagen

First attempts in the Danish West Indies: Slave law and slave trials during company rule, 1672- 1754

 In 1733, Governor Philip Gardelin of the Danish West Indies (today the US Virgin Islands) issued a slave code that would shape the prosecution of slaves in the islands until the first decades of the nineteenth century. The code has aptly been described as “draconian”.1 Yet little is known about the legal landscape that preceded the code; and consequently it is unclear whether the code was a codification of previous practices or a reform designed to meet the particular legal challenges facing the Danish West India and Guinea Company that ruled the islands from 1672 to 1754-5. The paper begins with the observation that the 1733 code was breaking new ground in at least one area. The code banned African magic, yet in the gruesome hierarchy of punishments established by the code, magic ranked at the lower end of the scale. It was punished with a “harsh flogging” whereas most other articles stipulated a combination of floggings, branding, mutilation and hanging. The deflated status of magic in the slave law of 1733 signalled a departure from earlier legal practices in the Danish West Indies and in Denmark.

Beginning with the above observation, I pursue the argument that the Gardelin code was intended to reform legal practices in the Danish West Indies. I do this by sketching the early history of law in the Danish West Indies, particularly focusing on how company authorities attempted to limit its jurisdictional authority over the enslaved population; thereby establishing enslaved Africans and African Caribbeans as marginal legal subjects.

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Louise Sebro, postdoctoral fellow, Danish National Museum, Copenhagen

 African Caribbean lives through the archives – land lists 1688-1754 and the construction of a social order

From the beginning of the colonial enterprise in the Caribbean, the Danish West India and Guinea Company kept track of the distribution of land in the countryside as well as in the town, Tappus, through the tax records, the so-called Land lists. Since not just land, but also people were subject to taxation the land lists are a marvelous source for understanding how people moved and were moved within the small community of the early 18th century. But also, they can provide us with an understanding of how hierarchical differences worked within the groups that are sometimes looked at as relatively homogenous. In the paper, I will present how the land lists can help us understand how free people of African descent, even though they were few in the early slave society, had greatly different positions, hierarchically and socially, and not the least, how the lists can help in understanding how free people of African descent themselves chose different ways of playing along or against the hegemony of the European-Caribbean population. By following three men of African descent through several years, I will suggest how to use these specific sources as entry into the field.

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Poul Olsen, MA, special consultant, Danish National Archives, Copenhagen

Slavery and the Law, 1755-1848

 In 1755, the Danish West Indian-Guinea Company was abolished and the Danish State took over its rights and properties, including the direct administration of the Danish West Indian islands of St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix. On this occasion, the Central Administration in Copenhagen felt the need to issue new regulation for the new possessions of the state. Among the peculiar West Indian institutions to be regulated, the institution of slavery came high on the list. In 1754-55, the Board of Commerce (Kommercekollegiet) drafted “Regulations for the Slaves” which received the King’s signature on 3 February, 1755. The Regulations, which were an almost verbatim translation of the French Code Noir of 1685, were meant to replace local regulations made by the Company’s governors and councils. In contrast to the local regulations, the new law contained not just rules for the behavior and punishment of slaves, but also for the slave owners and the free people of color. However, even if royally approved, the regulations were never put into force. In the absolute kingdom of Denmark, even the king’s informal decisions were the law. Consequently, the “Regulations for the Slaves” being a formally approved set of regulations that only missed the formal promulgation gave rise to doubt on the part of the colonial officials and judges. With this Danish Code Noir as a starting point, I follow the political-juridical debate on the legislation concerning slavery, as it took place in the Danish colonial administration and in the court until the abolition of slavery in 1848. I examine the reasons why an integrated law slavery was never enacted, even though several attempts were made.

ABSTRACT. Tematikken for sesjonen er nasjonenes forhold til etniske minoriteter og bruken av skolevesenet i nasjonsbyggingsprosjektet. Skolevesenet i alle de nordiske land har i utstrakt grad vært forventede deltakere i nasjonsbygging og -konsolidering. I Finland, Sverige og Norge har dette hatt konsekvenser for skolens arbeid med etniske minoriteter og da særlig samene. Skolevesenet i de respektive land har gjennomgått en reformasjon fra 1600-tallets underforståtte kristningsprosjekt til dagens demokratiske identitetsbygging. Likevel har samene og det samiske hele tiden vært en egenartet målgruppe for arbeidet, med et ekstra sterkt fokus på integrasjon i nasjonsfellesskapet.

Sesjonen har til formål å vise eksempler fra skolehistorien til alle tre nevnte land og drøfte hvorledes møtet mellom skolevesenet og minoritetene har artet seg. Bidragene henter eksempler fra ulike perioder, alt fra 1600-tallets Sverige til dagens norske læreplaner, med et kvensk casestudium fra Vadsø på 1880-tallet og finske utviklingslinjer på 1900-tallet. Sesjonen som helhet vil gi et komparativt bilde av forholdene i nord og således belyse utviklingstrekk i synet på etniske minoriteter. Bidragene drøfter også hvilke mottrekk som har vært gjort i de ulike landene for å dempe nasjonsbyggingstrykket. Bidragsyterne har alle arbeidet med skole og etnisitet i sine hjemland.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Daniel Lindmark (Umeå Universitet, Sverige): Svenska undervisningsinsatser och samiska reaktioner på 1600- och 1700-talen
2. Rolf Inge Larsen (UiT Norges arktiske universitet, Norge): ABC-striden i Vadsø på 1880-tallet. Confessio Augustana som begrunnelse for og mot fornorskningspolitikken i skolen
3. Jukka Nyyssönen (UiT –Norges arktiske universitet, Tromsø Museum - Universitetsmuseet, Norge): Den finske folkeskolen og samene 1900-1980 – etnopolitisk seier?
4. Håkon Rune Folkenborg (UiT Norges arktiske universitet, Norge): Samisk innhold i samfunnsfagets læreplaner i norsk grunnskole

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS

Professor Daniel Lindmark, Institutionen för idé- och samhällsstudier, Umeå Universitet:

Svenska undervisningsinsatser och samiska reaktioner på 1600- och 1700-talen

Under perioden 1680–1730 var repressionen mot samisk religion och kultur mycket stark från kyrkan och staten i Sverige. Trots undersökningskommissioner och rättegångar fortsatte dock samerna att hålla fast vid gammal tro och sed. Vid 1723 års riksdag fattades därför beslut om ett skolsystem med en internatskola för sex samiska elever i varje så kallad «lappmarksförsamling». Undervisning skulle alltså åstadkomma det som rättsliga åtgärder hade misslyckats med. Hur genomfördes då undervisningen i 1700-talets så kallade «lappskola», vilka resultat åstadkom den och vilka reaktioner väckte den hos samerna?

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Førsteamanuensis Rolf Inge Larsen, Institutt for lærerutdanning og pedagogikk, UiT Norges Arktiske universitet:

ABC-striden i Vadsø på 1880-tallet. Confessio Augustana som begrunnelse for og mot fornorskningspolitikken i skolen

Den såkalte ABC-striden fant sted på 1880-tallet i Vadsø. Konflikten var mellom prost Bernhard Andres Gjølme og lærer Ananias Brune, og var knyttet til uenighet om fornorskingspolitikk i skolen. Prosten mente at fornorskningsarbeidet gikk for sakte i Brune sine skoleklasser og at læreren stod på samenes og kvenenes side i kampen mot fornorskningen. Striden kulminerte i forståelsen av den Augsburgske Confession (derav ABC). Prosten foreslo å avsette læreren, og 25. september 1885 ble Brune av skolestyret suspendert fra lærergjerningen i påvente av en prosterettsak. Foredraget drøfter bruken av luthersk lære som begrunnelse både for og mot fornorskingspolitikken i skolen

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Forsker Jukka Nyyssönen, Institutt for historie og religionsvitenskap, UiT –Norges arktiske universitet, og Seksjon for kulturvitenskap, Tromsø Museum - Universitetsmuseet:

Den finske folkeskolen og samene 1900-1980 –etnopolitisk seier?

Mot slutten av 1900-tallet klarte man bl.a. gjennom samisk aktivisme og virksomhet å endre det finske skoleverket fra en de facto assimilerende til en kulturbevarende institusjon. Man snakker om samebevegelsens største etnopolitiske seier i Finland. Likevel veier de nasjonale imperativer fortsatt tyngst i skoleverket og den finske identitetsbyggingen betones på bekostning av det samiske. Resultatene man kan vise til er ikke entydig bekreftende heller: de samiske språkene er fortsatt truet i Finland. Spørsmålene som drøftes er; hvilke instrumentelle målsettinger har skolen for den finske staten, og i hvilken grad er de i samsvar med samebevegelsens målsetninger? Hva sier disse om den finske samepolitikken generelt? Er det egentlig noen forandring i statlig finsk samepolitikk?

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Førstelektor Håkon Rune Folkenborg, Institutt for lærerutdanning og pedagogikk, UiT Norges Arktiske universitet:

Samisk innhold i samfunnsfagets læreplaner i norsk grunnskole.

Skolen er en viktig bidragsgiver til nordmenns forestillinger om nasjonal identitet. Med etableringen av grunnskole for alle fra 1969, ble det innført felles læreplaner for alle norske skoleelever. Læreplanene var og er viktige kilder for myndighetenes syn på hvem den samiske urbefolkningen er, og endringer i læreplanene speiler endringer i skolemyndighetens oppfatninger. Foredraget viser hvilke bilder av «det samiske» de ulike læreplanverkene har gitt, og drøfter hvordan og hvorfor disse bildene har endret seg over tid.

ABSTRACT. Many historians have noted that in the nineteenth century, masculine identification was considered to reside “in the life of the mind”. Literature showed scant interest in the body and manliness was mainly about moral excellence. By the end of the nineteenth century this stance was changing rapidly or as John Tosh has noted, “there was a growing tension between the moral and physical criteria of manliness”. With a careful look at soldiers’ letters from the WWI Western Front in Europe, this paper will address the social and moral dilemmas of courage, comfort and manliness. Focusing on Sigurður Johnsen’s letters to his mother in Iceland, I will discuss his doubts of belonging as an immigrant and a foreigner in the Canadian army, as well as the mother-son relationship that appears in the letters. Public discourse during WWI often portrayed this wartime family connection as a dyad, with an obedient, empowered mother and an aggressive patriotic son. This paper will look at this poetic, political and often national image of the mother-son relationship from the perspective of the soldier, who, by (re)forming his masculine identity through letter writing, had to frequently negotiate the predicament of being his mother’s son and a grown man.

ABSTRACT. Past queer lives or “othered” sexualities have become a topic of current public historical interest. Especially memories of gay and lesbian pasts are gathered in the archives, made visible in life stories collections and oral history projects, and presented in museums. The present sexualities are produced, partly, in relation to the understandings of queer pasts, and at the same time the queer of the past is being constructed in this process.

This presentation discusses the construction of “othered”, forbidden and queer sexualities in Finnish and Estonian memories. The presentation addresses the changes that have taken place in these constructions from the 1990s to the present. By placing side by side memories produced in different national contexts it is possible to ask how does the societal and cultural context of the time being remembered and the time of remembering affect the construction of sexualities. Furthermore, it is discussed, what in fact has been “othered” in these historical contexts. The time remembered addressed in the presentation ranges from the Second World War to the present, and the memories studied are produced within collection campaigns, archiving processes and public discussions from the early 1990s onwards.

The presentation addresses life stories, collections of them, archives and public use of history as sites where memories of past sexualities are utilised to understand what is sexuality and what means to be “normal” or “othered”. The presentation is based on a dissertation project in its final stages.

ABSTRACT. One of several hot-tempered arguments in David Lowenthal’s classic work The Heritage Crusade and the Spoils of History (1998) highlights the importance of childhood in the discourses of heritage. Since heritage merely seems to be a conspiratorial celebration of the past for Lowenthal, the childhood dimension is treated as a tool which the advocates of a specific heritage use to legitimize their version of history. My research on heritage attractions confirms Lowenthal’s claim that childhood is a crucial element in heritage. Through analyses of texts and interviews pertaining to the maritime heritage attractions and stakeholders in Sweden, however, I contend that the use of more or less salient references to childhood could be understood as unreflective and habitual articulations. Nonetheless, even though the forms of heritage attractions may vary and the stakeholder’s so-called personality may differ the imaginary landscapes of childhood appear to function as central prerequisites in the enterprises of heritage. However, to offer a deeper understanding of how the uses of childhood work within the logics of heritage I propose that we move beyond Lowenthal’s critique. I propose that the references to childhood could be related to the concept of emotional communities, introduced by the historian Barbara Rosenwein (2006). The emotional community for Rosenwein is a as group in which people have a common stake, interests, values and goals. The goals etc. is reached through representations of emotion within in a system of norms and convention. The analysis focuses on the fabric of a social community and how emotions are discursively expressed, not unmediated feelings or emotions. I believe that an analytical approach that make use of the concept of emotional community with the focus on the different uses of the feeling of childhood is a way to deconstruct naturalisations, hierarchies, temporality and spatiality within heritage.

ABSTRACT. As the 1950s approached America presented itself as the key cultural power of the twentieth century – as the model of modernity. In the case of tourism it was the car-centered American way of life, above all, that represented U.S. to Scandinavians. The car embodied key elements of the American model of modernity – independence and mobility, freedom and ownership, comfort and pleasure – and commentators claimed enthusiastically that the “nature of the car” would revolutionize tourism. In the Scandinavian countries this interest in the American way of life coincided with the transition from a bourgeois mode of tourism to a mass-scale mode. Two structural changes helped to catalyze this transition: the democratization of leisure time and motorization. Leaving work – and leaving home – for a couple of summer weeks, and increasingly so by car, became a reality for the broader strata of society.

The three papers contributing to this proposed session examine the mutual shaping of tourism and automobility in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, respectively. They identify automobile associations, tourist associations, hotel associations, cooperative travel and holiday organizations, trade unions and their like as key actors in the making of Scandinavian autotourism. Although America and its representations provided the framework in which these protagonists interpreted and debated modernity, the papers demonstrate that the Scandinavian countries modernized along other paths.

Session organizer: Per Lundin, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg 

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Per Lundin (Chalmers University of Technology): ‘Confronting class: the American motel in early post-war Sweden’ 
2. Per Østby (NTNU, Trondheim): ‘Car mobility and camping tourism in Norway, 1950–1970’
3. Michael F. Wagner (Aalborg University), ‘The rise of autotourism in Danish leisure, 1910–1970’ 
   
   Discussant: Wiebke Kolbe. Lunds Universitet.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Confronting class: the American motel in early post-war Sweden 

Per Lundin, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg 

In Swedish tourism discourse, the car-centred American way of life was by the mid-1950s met with enthusiasm. In the case of accommodation, it was above all the motel that served to symbolise the positive values associated with the American model of modernity. The great expectations placed on the motel did not materialise as anticipated, however. In fact, already by the early 1960s, the motel had been brought into disrepute, and it would remain a marginal phenomenon in Swedish auto tourism. This paper singles out class as one of the decisive factors for this change of events. The tourism discourse was dominated by the bourgeois middle classes, and only a few of the Swedish motels were built to meet their expectations. The majority offered instead basic lodging for truck drivers, an occupational group embodying a working-class culture that many placed at the very bottom of the social hierarchy. The motel thus materialised in two entirely different cultural and social settings, and it developed into an arena for cultural class-related confrontations. Middle-class dreams collided with blue-collar realities, and in this clash, the discontent latent in great expectations became manifest. 

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Car mobility and camping tourism in Norway, 1950–1970 

Per Østby, NTNU, Trondheim

The paper identify main actors and vital trends in the development of car camping as a major leisure activity in Norway during the years between 1950 and 1970. In the 1920s, tourists travelling by bus, train and bicycle were the first to camp. A few years later, in the 1930s, a small number of car owners, armed with simple tents, established campsites near rivers, lakes and the seaside. By the late 1950s and 1960s, car camping boomed. This development took place in the same period that Norwegian car politics went through major shifts. From 1948 and during the 1950s the political elite described the private car as a problem and a potential burden on the national economy. Consequently authorities strictly limited importation and sale of private cars. They suddenly removed these restrictions in October 1960, however. From that point forward, the automobile joined the television as a vital element of modern Norwegian society. It is interesting that many soon associated car ownership with camping activities; indeed, camping became an argument for widespread car use, bolstering the case against government restrictions on private vehicles. Soon, car imports increased and campsites proliferated. 

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The Rise of Autotourism in Danish Leisure, 1910-1970 

Michael F. Wagner, Aalborg University 

The automobile has achieved a central position in modern everyday life as an essential artefact to mobility. This raises the question how automobiles have been mediated for mass consumption? The thesis is that the culture of Danish automobilism was substantially constructed and appropriated through leisure activities, primarily tourism. The main actor on this scene was the automobile consumer organisation Touring Club de Danemark (FDM) who acted as spokesperson of car owners and car drivers and mediated between production, state regulation and consumption. The general purpose of the consumer organization was to create a cultural identity and a material reality linking car, leisure and tourism. This is basically a story of unlimited access to Sunday driving or the daytrip, and facilitation of autotourism and autocamping during the holidays. The paper demonstrates the manner in which automobilism in Denmark was invented, constructed, represented, and appropriated as a touring culture after 1900.

ABSTRACT. 100 bøger om historiske tematikker på syv år. Det går Aarhus Universitetsforlag i gang med at udgive i september 2017. Forskere på danske universiteter og museer skal fortælle danmarkshistorier på en anderledes og engagerende måde. Omdrejningspunktet er de 100 bøger på hver 100 sider, men projektet formidles også på en lang række andre platforme – foredrag, avis, museer, internettet og app – og til mange målgrupper, som fx grundskolen og ungdomsuddannelserne.

Ideen om at fortælle den nationale historie – med udsyn til resten af verden og det globale – gennem 100 begivenheder og tematikker, deres konsekvenser og perspektiver samt historiebrug. Hver bog tager udgangspunkt i en relativt skelsættende begivenhed og et år, men der trækkes tråde langt tilbage og frem, så læserne får blotlagt forskellige årsager og eftervirkninger. Denne måde at skrive danmarkshistorie på sættes til debat. Både generelt og i forhold til konkrete titler. Desuden drøftes valget af begivenheder og tematikker. Risikerer man ved denne på sin vis kanonagtige tilgang en overvægt af politisk historie på bekostning af fx kulturhistorie og socialhistorie?

På sessionen diskuterer tidligere chefredaktør på Politiken, Bo Lidegaard, med adjunkt Heidi Vad Jønsson fra Syddansk Universitet, professor Ulrik Langen fra Københavns Universitet og lektor Torben K. Nielsen fra Aalborg Universitet. De skal alle bidrage til serien og vil inddrage deres egne bogprojekter i diskussionen.

ABSTRACT. 100 året for første verdenskrig har ført til en strøm af nye bøger, museumsudstillinger, en stærkt forøget medieinteresse, dokumentariske og dramadokumentariske produktioner til tv-mediet, men også fiktive tv-serier og spillefilm. Meget af det er båret af faghistorisk erkendeinteresse, men alt sammen må også se som forsøg på at forme eller blot fortælle videre på de fortællinger om krigen, der præger erindringen om krigen i forskellige lande. At visuelle medier spiller en central rolle her er hverken overraskende eller nyt: Film har spillet en vigtig rolle i etableringen og videreformidlingen af de bærende fortællinger om krigen og dens mening siden krigsårene. Det er Russell Crowe’s film, The Water Diviner, fra 2014 endnu et eksempel på. Filmen udspiller sig i krigens kølvand, men slaget ved Gallipoli er den centrale begivenhed, som er filmens reelle motor. The Water Diviner fik stor succes, både blandt publikum og anmeldere hjemme i Australien, mens både amerikanske og britiske anmeldere generelt uddelte ganske drøje hug. Det er ikke svært at forstå: Crowes film er både underholdende og kulørt, men en ”stor” film er der ikke tale om. Til gengæld er det for historikere en meget spændende film, fordi den fortæller meget om både krigens status i Australien og de fortællingsmønstre der dominerer de australske erindringer om krigen. Introduktionen til filmen vil uddybe dette tema, men også bredere afdække hvilken rolle film har spillet i formningen af de dominerende fortællinger om krigen.

Nils Arne Sørensen, professor i moderne historie, SDU.

ABSTRACT. Turistdestinationer har å ena sidan karakteriserats som modernitetens laboratorier (Orvar Löfgren, On Holiday, 1999), där man experimenterade med nya, moderna sociala praktiker och mentaliteter. Å andra sidan utsatts de också för den romantiska turistiska blicken (John Urry, The Tourist Gaze, 1990) som ville hitta orörd natur, pittoreska byggnader och traditionellt handverk. Denna spänning mellan tradition och modernitet gäller även havsbad, som är en typisk turistdestination. Panelen vill undersöka i vilken mån drag av traditionalitet respektive modernitet var konstituerande för nordiska och baltiska havsbad på 1800- och 1900-talen. Detta undersöker panelens papers genom att ta upp olika områden och perspektiv. Många (fast inte alla) havsbad var gamla fiskebyar, där befolkningen så småningom övergick från fiskeriet till turism. Hur denna övergång skedde och huruvida den kan beskrivas som moderniseringsprocess är intressant att undersöka. En annan viktig fråga är om man kan beskriva möten mellan invånare och gästgivare å ena sidan och turister och sommargäster å andra sidan som möten mellan tradition och modernitet. Kanske fanns det vissa grupper turister som var mer traditionella än andra, sådana som höll fast vid traditionella värderingar, men samtidigt ville ha tillgång till modern komfort och faciliteter? Förhållandet mellan tradition och modernitet är komplext även angående havsbadens marknadsföring och -strategier. Torkande fiskenät och fiskarbåtar vid stranden samt traditionella dräkter var pittoreska element som utnyttjades av havsbaden för sin marknadsföring med reklamaffischer och vykort. Samtidigt ville de erbjuda turisterna (och marknadsförde) moderna faciliteter och underhållning som inte passade in i den pittoreska bilden av en traditionell fiskeby. Stämmer det faktiskt att havsbad var laboratorier för moderniteten? Vilka moderna mentaliteter och praktiker inövades där, och av vem? Dessa, i turismhistorien omdiskuterade frågor vill panelen belysa. Inte sist ska på panelen likheter och skillnader mellan havsbad från olika länder och regioner bli tydliga och diskuteras.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Christina Douglas (Södertörn Universitet, Sverige): Nakenbadande tyskbalter vid Rigascher Strand: ett partiellt motstånd mot moderniteten
2. Lulu Anne Hansen (Sydvestjyske museer, Danmark): En primitiv art”? – en undersøgelse af mødet mellem turister og lokale på den danske Vestkyst
3. Dag Hundstad (Høgskulen i Volda, Norge): «Som Zebraer paa Sjøsanden» - brytninger og strømninger i etableringen av det moderne sørnorske strandlivet
4. Torkel Jansson (Uppsala universitet, Sverige): Modern viking far österut – svensk turism i mellankrigstidens Estland

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Christina Douglas, Fil. Dr. i historia, forskare, Södertörns högskola, Sverige

Nakenbadande tyskbalter vid Rigascher Strand: ett partiellt motstånd mot moderniteten

 Decennierna runt sekelskiftet 1900 spenderade många av Rigas tyskbaltiska medelklass sina somrar vid Rigascher Strand (Jurmala) (Kurilo 2011). Tyskbalterna beskrivs ofta som en relativt konservativ grupp, föga förvånande då de var en liten elitgrupp som framför allt bestod av adel och medelklass (Whelan 1999). Tyskbalterna och deras sommartillvaro vid Rigascher Strand lämpar sig väl för att diskutera mötet mellan tradition och modernitet. Moderniteten förde med sig idéer om nationalism och demokrati, idéer som hotade tyskbalternas priviligierade elitställning, och därmed möttes med en viss skepsis av tyskbalterna. Under det sena 1800-talet uppstod för första gången i Riga från tyskbalterna separata medelklasser, lettiska, judiska och ryska (Hirschhausen 2006). Moderniteten förde dock också med sig nya tekniska landvinningar, däribland järnvägen, en aspekt tyskbalterna omfamnade helt. Närheten till Riga gjorde dock att det framför allt var kvinnor och barn som spenderade hela somrarna vid Rigascher Strand medan männen med hjälp av järnvägen pendlade mellan sommarbostäderna och våningen och arbetet inne i Riga. Järnvägen och tidtabellen för tågen från och till Riga påverkade också tyskbalternas diskussion kring bad-tiderna. Badtiderna vid Rigascher Strand var nämligen en bra bit in på 1900-talet uppdelade efter kön, män och kvinnor hade separata badtider. En bidragande orsak till detta var troligtvis att det var nakenbad som idkades vid Rigascher Strand. Tyskbalterna pläderade explicit för ett bibehållande av nakenbad, bland annat med argumentet att de ville fortsätta vara gammaldags. Papret kommer att diskutera tyskbalternas avvisande av vad de uppfattade som moderna sedvänjor (att bada iklädd badkläder) å ena sidan och deras samtidiga acceptans av järnvägen å andra sidan.

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Lulu Anne Hansen, ph.d. i historia, Leder af Historieenheden, Sydvestjyske Museer, Danmark

”En primitiv art”? – en undersøgelse af mødet mellem turister og lokale på den danske Vestkyst

Nærværende bidrag vil beskæftige sig med mødet mellem badegæster og lokale på udvalgte badesteder langs den danske vestkyst fra slutningen af 1800’tallet til 1900’tallets første årti. Selvom der efterhånden findes en række enkeltstudier og enkelte tiltag til mere overordnede redegørelser, har der i en dansk sammenhæng ikke været gjort forsøg på egentlige komparative undersøgelser ud over det rent deskriptive i forhold til Vestkystens badesteder. Det til trods for, at disse både opstod og udviklede sig vidt forskelligt. Udgangspunktet for studiet vil være de to store satsninger for badeturismen langs den sydvestjyske kyst: Fanø og Rømø, som begge med hhv anlæggelsen af Fanø Nordsøbad (1891) og Nordseebad Lakolk (1898) repræsenterede det ypperste af, hvad den moderne badegæst forventede – om end med forskellige målgrupper for øje. Heroverfor vil enkelte mindre badesteder blive inddraget bl.a. vadehavsøen Mandø og fastlandsbadestedet Hjerting ikke langt fra Fanø, som også oplevede en kort opblomstring i slutningen af 1800’tallet. Hensigten med undersøgelsen vil være at se på og udfordre det traditionelle syn på mødet mellem tradition (i litteraturen normalt repræsenteret ved lokalbefolkningen) og modernitet (repræsenteret ved gæsterne) på de udvalgte destinationer. Der vil bl.a. blive spurgt til, om denne udbredte opdeling er for forsimplet. For hvordan spillede idéerne om den traditionelle folkekultur sammen med de ofte topmoderne faciliteter og det bagvedliggende entreprenørskab, der gjorde sig gældende flere steder langs kysten? Hvordan var lokalbefolkningerne med til selv at frame det ”blik”, som turisterne kastede på kysten, og hvordan spiller det sammen med centrale begreber inden for samtidens turismestudier som f.eks. idéer om autenticitet. Undersøgelsen vil ud over det arkivalske materiale, som findes om centrale aktører på de enkelte badesteder, også inddrage breve rejseberetninger i de populære medier samt visuelt materiale som bl.a. postkort og markedsføringsmaterialer både i forhold til producenter og bagvedliggende budskaber.

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Dag Hundstad, ph.d. i historia, førsteamanuensis, Høgskulen i Volda, Norge

«Som Zebraer paa Sjøsanden» - brytninger og strømninger i etableringen av det moderne sørnorske strandlivet

Innlegget vil fokusere på utviklingen av et moderne norsk strandliv i mellomkrigstiden, med regionen Sørlandet som geografisk ramme og badestranda Sjøsanden ved Mandal som case. Gjennombruddet for Sørlandet som turistdestinasjon sammenfaller med en sterkt øket interesse for strandliv i Norge i 1920- og 1930-årene. Den mest populære badestranden ble Sjøsanden, som i løpet av få år ble transformert fra en «ikke-sone» i småbyens kulturgeografi til sentrum for den lokale rekreasjons- og underholdningsindustrien. I 1937 betegnet National Geographic Sjøsanden som «The Atlantic City of Norway». Ved hjelp av lokalaviser, minneopptegnelser og andre kilder, har det vært mulig å spore forhandlingene om nye rekreasjonspraksiser og omgangsformer knyttet til stranda. Trekk som kroppsdyrkelse, utvungent samkvem mellom kjønnene og stadig mer utfordrende bademoter brøt med etablerte tradisjoner i distriktet, samtidig som det var en klar kobling mellom bading og helse innenfor den rådende hygienetenkningen. Fremveksten av det moderne strandlivet på Sørlandet gir således også innganger til å forstå mer allmenne regionale moderniseringsprosesser i perioden.

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Torkel Jansson, professor emeritus i historia, Uppsala universitet, Sverige

Modern viking far österut – svensk turism i mellankrigstidens Estland

I slutet av 1930-talet gavs en påkostad broschyr ut med rubriken ”Modern viking far österut… till Estland”. Man slog två flugor i en smäll: broschyren var årsbarn med 1938 års semesterlag, och den tog, liksom all reklam för turism i österled, fasta på den urgamla gemensamma historien, som nu även i Estland efter ryssarnas uttåg kunde framhållas och i viss grad mytologiseras – det var i högsta grad modernt att tala om det rätt nyuppfunna uttrycket ”den gamla goda svensktiden” (ryskt arvegods svärtades i stort sett ned totalt och balttyskt förtegs i det närmaste helt; de forna makthavarna talade om invasioner av ”billige Schweden” och undrade om man inte i nutiden också borde vara stolt över vad tyskarna lämnat efter sig – det officiella Estland knöt sig också starkt till moderniteten i de nordiska grannstaterna). Nybyggda hotell med all tänkbar modern komfort – inkl. musik av symfoniorkestrar på stränderna före transistorradioapparaternas ankomst – döptes till ”Vasa” och liknande, där man också gjort sig av med ålderdomligheter som drickspengar. Den moderna estniska staten skulle vara attraktiv, vilket överbefälhavaren raskt insåg, när han 1920 tillät ”pardans”, som skulle locka finländska och svenska turister till strandpaviljongerna på Östersjökusten och vid Finska vikens sydliga stränder. Två år efteråt grundades Svensk turisttidning. Organ för turistväsen och badortsliv, i vilken modernismen visade sig i artiklar om det naturliga att leva billigt under ferierna i Estland. Foldrarna fylldes också med reklam för reseskrivmaskiner och lämpliga personbilar. Den nye turisten kunde också vid sidan av badandet ta del i kurser i det relativt nyuppfunna esperanto.

ABSTRACT. Efter reformationen udgjorde Sverige og Danmark sammen et luthersk rum i Nordeuropa. Men udviklingen af reformationen i de to lande frembyder både ligheder og forskelle. Der var tilsyneladende lighed ved, at i begge lande greb fyrstemagten i form af kongerne Gustav Vasa og Christian III tidligt aktivt ind til fordel for en luthersk reformation, men der var også forskel mellem de to lande på, hvordan forløbet af reformationen efterfølgende formede sig med en hurtigt gennemført reformation i Danmark og en længerevarende proces i Sverige. Ved at sætte fokus på den i forskningen ofte underbelyste tidlige reformationsfase i første halvdel af 1500-tallet vil sessionen tage spørgsmålet om parallelitet i de to landes reformationsudvikling op til debat. Væsentlige temaer i denne udvikling angår vurderingen af reformationen som en bevægelse præget af stærk kontinuitet fra senmiddelalderen eller som et brud i den historiske udvikling i 1520erne og 1530erne, hvor luthersk teologi og samfundstænkning kom til at udstikke nye veje i nordisk historie. Eller måske er der basis for at se udviklingen i Sverige og Danmark i en kombination af bevægelser af brud og kontinuitet? Også spørgsmål om i hvilket omfang den tidlige reformationsbevægelse i de to lande havde forankring i befolkningen og hvor udbredt ønsket om reform var inden for kirken, er vigtige i denne sammenhæng. Ved at bringe bidrag fra Sverige og Danmark sammen er det sessionens formål at belyse og lægge op til diskussion om forskelle og ligheder mellem udviklingen i de tidlige reformationsbevægelser i de to lande. Det er desuden formålet at virke for en større udveksling af viden og erfaring mellem de to lande – og de øvrige nordiske lande – om tidlig svensk og dansk reformationshistorie.

OPLÆG:

1. Martin Berntson (lektor, Göteborgs Universitet): Går det att tala om ett folkligt reformationsmotstånd i Sverige under 1500-talet?
2. Gabriella Bjarne Larsson (docent, Stockholms Universitet): Brist på vård och arbete: konsekvenser av 1527 års indragning av egendom och tjänster i Stockholm.
3. Lars Bisgaard (lektor, Syddansk Universitet): Sognet hen over reformationen i Danmark.
4. Laura Skinnebach (postdoc, Aarhus Universitet): Visual instrumentalisering af forandring.

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Martin Berntson, lektor, Göteborgs Universitet. Går det att tala om ett folkligt reformationsmotstånd i Sverige under 1500-talet? 

De olikartade källor som ger oss kunskap om den tidiga reformationen i Sverige kan tolkas som uttryck för ett kompakt folkligt motstånd mot den religiösa förändring som vi kallar reformationen. Vi kan se uttryck för sådant motstånd både i källor utfärdade av bondemenigheter, i upprorsakter, i krönikematerial samt i elitens korrespondens. I detta sammanhang vill jag argumentera för att även om man helt klart kan tala om ett folkligt reformationsmotstånd i Sverige, är det samtidigt nödvändigt att kritiskt diskutera vad som innefattas i termerna ”folkligt” och ”reformationsmotstånd”. Termen ”folklig” kan inte göra anspråk på att nödvändigtvis omfatta en majoritet av folket och den kan inte heller sägas åsyfta någon distinkt folklig mentalitet, som skulle vara helt åtskild från elitens uppfattningar. Vidare behöver inte de enstaka missnöjesyttringarna mot enskilda fenomen inom ramen för vad vi kallar ”reformationen” tolkas som missnöje mot hela reformationsprocessen. Vi ser inte heller några tydliga missnöjesyttringar gentemot avskaffandet av avlatshandeln eller brytningen med påvedömet. Dessutom är folkligt motstånd mot förändringar i kyrkans rituella liv inget unikt för den tidiga reformationen utan förekom både före och efter denna period. Däremot går det att tala om ett missnöje, som förekom i olika delar av Sverige, mot de reformatoriskt inspirerade förändringarna i det praktiska fromhetslivet, särskilt upplösningen av klostren och förändringarna av mässfirandet, samt mot kungamaktens positiva inställning till vad som ansågs vara en falsk lära. Även om den kvantitativa omfattningen av detta reformationsmotstånd är svår att bedöma, var det så pass betydelsefullt att kungamakten ansåg det vara ett politiskt problem. 

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Gabriella Bjarne Larsson, docent, Stockholms Universitet. Brist på vård och arbete: konsekvenser av 1527 års indragning av egendom och tjänster i Stockholm 

Det är bekant att Gustav Vasa konfiskerade kyrkor och klosters rikedomar. Mindre uppmärksammat är att han gjorde likadant med de donationer gillena i Stockholms stad hade fått av sina medlemmar. I denna lilla studie beskriver jag först vad gillena använde den donerade, fasta egendomen till före reformationen. Därefter visar jag vilka konsekvenser reformationsriksdagens beslut om indragningen av de fasta egendomarna fick för gillenas ekonomi, för gillesmedlemmarna och för gillesprästen. Jag försöker också att kartlägga gillesprästernas härstamning. Mina slutsatser blir att besluten 1527 fick omedelbara, negativa konsekvenser för viktiga delar av gilleskulturen och därmed för många av stadens invånare, eftersom både hantverkare och köpmän hörde till dessa gillen. Jag hävdar dessutom att arbetsmöjligheterna för de prästutbildade drastiskt minskade på grund av samma beslut. Studien bygger på tänkeboksnotiser. Nyckelord: prebenda, gillespräst, vård, räkenskapsbok, fast egendom, ränteinkomster. 

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Lars Bisgaard, lektor, Syddansk Universitet: Sognet hen over reformationen i Danmark 

Sognet har siden højmiddelalderen og frem til i dag været den selvfølgelige enhed i den danske kirke. Den bedrevne forskning synes at bekræfte et kontinuum hen over reformationen. Det er dog først inden for den seneste generation af historikere, at særskilte studier af sognets rolle og funktion i senmiddelalderen er dukket op, og de antyder, at brudflader var flere end almindeligvis antaget, ikke mindst i lyset af tidens mange mindre gruppedannelser som gilder lav og broderskaber, der ofte var sognebaserede. Denne indsigt gør, at sognets stilling 1500-1500 så at sige får sin egen relevans. De reformatoriske tanker om sognet, som de formuleres i Kirkeordinansen 1537/39, fremstår samlende og styrkende. Disse skal imidlertid holdes op imod en række indgreb fra centralt hold, hvor nye regler for tiende og forbuddet mod sjælemesser ofte blev en økonomisk lussing set i et sogneperspektiv. I det lys er det interessant, at adelen efter reformationen vendte tilbage til sognet med fornyet styrke. Alt i alt vil oplægget forsøge at give en samlet vurdering af udviklingen for sognet henover reformationen. 

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Laura Skinnebach, postdoc, Aarhus Universitet: Visual instrumentalisering af forandring 

Luther forholdt sig i flere af sine tekster eksplicit til Reformationens operationalisering. Han forestillede sig forandringerne gennemført som en glidende transition, hvilket han især formulerede i sin polemiske afstandstagen fra billedstormerne Jean Calvin og Andreas Karlstadt. Fokus for nærværende bidrag er at se på hvordan forandringer, og ikke mindst forandringspraksis, kommer til udtryk i den visuelle kultur i perioden omkring Reformationen i Danmark. Med udgangspunkt i eksempler fra danske illuminerede senmiddelalderlige bønnebøger og udvalgte altertavler som gennemgik visuelle forandringer i den tidlige Reformationsperiode, vil mit paper diskutere om man kan tale om en specifikt dansk version af tidlig lutherske forandringspraksis.

ABSTRACT. What has traditionally been called a process of secularization of the spiritual law of the church must thus also be viewed as a process of spiritualization of the secular law of the state.

Denne session tager udgangspunkt i Harold Bermans tese om Reformationens konsekvenser for den verdslige lovgivning og stiller spørgsmålet: ”Hvilke – om nogen – konsekvenser havde Reformationen for dansk lovgivning?”. Nærmere bestemt vil den søge at besvare, hvordan overgangen fra katolicismen til protestantismen påvirkede hvordan, hvad og med hvilket formål, den verdslige magt regulerede det danske samfund. Problemstillingen vil bidrage til en nuanceret forståelse af Reformationens konsekvenser på områder, der rækker ud over de traditionelle kirkepolitiske aspekter. Sessionen vil befinde sig i det tværfaglige felt mellem kultur- og retshistorie og vil med en kombination af disse discipliner undersøge kulturelle strømningers indflydelse på normative tekster i perioden fra 1522-1683. Dette vil blive undersøgt ved tre nedslag i hhv. tiden lige inden den officielle Reformation i 1536, perioden mellem Reformationen og Danske Lov og sluttelig en fremstilling af Reformationens indflydelse på netop Danske Lov. Alle tre bidrag vil være delresultater af ph.d. afhandlinger, der forventes indleveret til forsvar i ultimo 2016/primo 2017, og vil således alle være helt nye bidrag til det etablerede forskningsfelt.

PRÆSENTATIONER:

1. Christina Lysbjerg Mogensen (Det Nationalhistoriske Museum, Frederiksborg Slot, Danmark): irken underlagt kongen og kongelige embedsmænd underlagt kirken: kirken og troens rolle i Christian II’s Land- og Bylov (1522)
2. Anette Larner (Aarhus Universitet, Danmark): oderdrab og angreb på den lutherske husstand: Luthers tre-stands lære og Danske Lov

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Kirken underlagt kongen og kongelige embedsmænd underlagt kirken: kirken og troens rolle i Christian II’s Land- og Bylov (1522).

Christina Lysbjerg Mogensen, ph.d.-stipendiat ved Aarhus Universitet

Lovgivningen under Christian II, og specielt den omfattende Land- og Bylov, repræsenterer en række nye tendenser i Danmark, heriblandt de reformatoriske tanker, der prægede den nordlige del af det TyskRomerske Kejserdømme på dette tidspunkt. Lovkomplekse udgør således en fremragende – og hidtil uudnyttet – kilde til, hvorledes disse kulturelle strømninger havde indflydelse på den danske centralmagt, inden den egentlige reformation fandt sted.

 Dette paper vil belyse dette emne ud fra følgende tre spørgsmål: 1. Hvilken rolle blev kirkeinstitutionen tildelt? Land- og Byloven udfordrede kirkens position i samfundet, samt dennes forbindelse til den overordnede, kirkelige institution i Rom. Denne del af paperet vil undersøge, hvilke konsekvenser disse begrænsninger havde for institutionens rolle. 2. Hvilken rolle blev den kristne tro tildelt? Lovkomplekset pålagde embedsmænd såvel som folk generelt at deltage i de religiøse handlinger. Denne del af paperet vil undersøge, hvilken rolle trossamfundet blev tilskrevet, og hvorfor den verdslige lovgivning overhovedet forholdt sig til dette religiøse spørgsmål. 3. Hvilken rolle blev centralmagten tildelt i forhold til hhv. institution og tro? Med afsæt i de tidligere to elementer og med udgangspunkt i Bermans tese om gejstlighedens indvirkning på verdslig lovgivning vil forholdet mellem institution og tro blive diskuteret ligesom centralmagtens rolle i forhold til begge også vil blive belyst. Paperet vil således på den ene side præsentere et kildemateriale, hvis indhold og potentiale er relativt ukendt og dermed bidrage til videre forskning. På den anden side vil paperet byde ind med en ny, dansk vinkel på forskningen i, hvad der sker lige inden den officielle reformering finder sted og dermed belyse, hvilke tankemønstre der gjorde sig gældende, inden Lutherdommen blev en etableret trosretning.

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Moderdrab og angreb på den lutherske husstand: Luthers tre-stands lære og Danske Lov.

Anette Larner, ph.d. stipendiat ved Aarhus Universitet

I 1761 blev en landsby i Nordjylland vidne til en retssag om et brutalt mord. Det var et mord, der hidtil var uhørt. Det var ikke kun en forbrydelse mod loven; det var måske en særlig forbrydelse mod Gud og naturen. En voksen datter havde på grusomste vis dræbt sin skrøbelige mor i hendes seng. I udskrifter af denne sag blev datteren beskrevet som at have ”afdraget sig al sin menneskelighed”. Men mere væsentligt var det, at hun havde afstået alle de naturlige og gudfrygtige pligter et barn havde overfor deres forældre. Dette paper vil diskutere den kulturelle og retslige forståelse af kriminalitet imod husstanden, der truede forestillingen om ”the minicommonwealth”. Præsentationen tager afsæt i et mikro-studie af en usædvanlig retssag, som danner et prisme, hvorigennem vi kan lære mere om de kulturelle og retslige holdninger til og forestillinger om moralsk kriminalitet imod husstanden; den centrale enhed i den lutherske tre-stands lære. Udover retssagen og lokalsamfundets syn på denne type kriminalitet, vil den kuriositet at Danske Lov ikke havde en særskilt lov imod at myrde forældre blive diskuteret for at opnå en forståelse af om det havde været en del af betænkningerne og diskussionerne for lovkommissærerne, som udarbejdede Danske Lov

ABSTRACT. Jag önskar presentera monografin Bödlar. Liv, död och skam i svenskt 1600-tal som utkom våren 2016. Den kretsar kring bödelsskammens sociala och rumsliga gränser, som vad vanhedern betydde för bödeln i hans vardag och för dem han hade i sin närhet. Bödlar var under 1600-talet stadsanställda tjänstemän med årslön, skjutshäst och tjänstebostad, tillsatta att verkställa utdömda dödsdomar och kroppssrtaff. Därtill skulle han tömma latriner, slakta hästar, dra hudar, döda kattungar. Sådana sysslor var behäftade med social skam. På motsvarande sätt var bödlar på alla sätt förskjutna från de hederligas gemenskaper. Vid det svenska 1600-talets början rekryterades bödlar genom att en dödsdömd benådades mot att denne tog på sig uppdraget. Ingen önskade få någonting som detta på sin lott. Under seklets mitt skulle dock rekryteringsformerna förändras. Dödsdömda storförbrytare utgjorde snart inte längre den gängse rekryteringsbasen. Bödelsämbetet började gå i arv. Söner och döttrar till bödlar gifte sig och tog över efter sina föräldrar. De monopoliserade de sysslor som ingen annan önskade utföra. Ändå måste ju någon utföra just sådana uppgifter. Dödsstraff utdömdes och måste verkställas. Latriner måste tömmas och smutsen kom ingen undan. Smutsen fanns - och finns - där människorna finns. Snart nog hade hela bödelssläkter grenat ut sig i riket. Dessa vaktade på värvet, månade om tjänsteuppdragen. Konsekvensen av detta blev att bödelsskammen ytterligare befästes. En än vidare klyfta växte fram mellan bödlarna - och rackarna och de resande som också hörde till gruppen - och den etablera bondebefolkningen, de i den kristna treståndslärans normativa samhällsmodell. Frågan är då hur skammen fungerade i vardagen. Fanns något i dess begränsningar som gick att dra nytta av? Vad betydde bödelsskammen för så kallat vanligt folk? Vem eller vilka grupper i samhället fruktade den mest - och varför?

ABSTRACT. This paper discusses the historical research project "The Swedish Working-Class History" (Den svenska arbetarklassens historia) which was launched in 1936 after it received funding from the Swedish Trade Union Confederation. The research project engaged scholars from a wide range of academic disciplines, including History, Economic History, Ethnology, and Political Science. Over a twenty-year period twelve volumes were published, covering a significant part of the history of Swedish industrial society.

In retrospect “The Swedish Working-Class History” has been coined an unparalleled achievement when it comes to synthesizing historical knowledge of industrial Sweden. Some commentators argue that there has not been any attempt to synthesize the historical knowledge of industrial Sweden ever since this project. That is argued against the background that Labor History was one of the most productive fields of research in the second half of the twentieth century. Seemingly, the past decades delivered a large amount of case studies and few – if any – general accounts.

Through an examination of the twelve publications, book reviews, and historiographical overviews, the aim of this paper is to disclose the methodological design of the individual contributions as well as the research project as a whole. The main focus is to what extent the synthesizing methodology of “The Swedish Working-Class History” is relevant for the conceptualization of historical synthesis today.

ABSTRACT. Traditional perspectives on the history of the working class and the labour movements are inevitably challenged not only by present-day political conjunctures, but also by prominent senses of relatively recent epochal ruptures, in which the paradigms of modernity (futurity, progress etc.) seem to have been superseded by globalization, postmodernity or the ‘presentist regime of historicity’. This panel proposes to consider conceptual history as one useful historical approach to this present challenge and to discuss the methodological and material preconditions of a fruitful encounter between the traditions of labour history and conceptual history.

The approaches of conceptual history allow us to explore the development of labour, class and movement as historical conceptualizations in specific cultural and linguistic contexts, thus challenging anachronistic categorizations. As many sympathetic critics have remarked, however, much conceptual history has been rather summary in its analyses of social contexts and practices, and its traditional starting-point in the writings of prominent thinkers and politicians have perhaps lent it a somewhat one-sided perspective in many matters. Labour history, on the other hand, has often tended to overlook questions of language and ideas, preferring to emphasize social structure and class agency ‘from below’. A conceptual history of working class and labour history seems to call for a combination of the strengths of both traditions. Fortunately, the increasing digital availability of source material documenting ‘everyday’ uses of concepts may facilitate such an approach. But important methodological questions remain for discussion: relations between semantics and pragmatics, structure and agency, social and linguistic context, single-language contexts and transnational conceptual movements, studies of single concepts and studies of semantic networks/discourses, etc.

In this panel we wish to approach questions of interpretation as well as methodology through a number of specific case studies, all focusing on the Nordic societies.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Margit Vilstrup (The Workers Museum): From futurist to presentist regimes. Conceptualizing “the worker” in Danish politics 1871-2015.

2. Risto Turunen (University of Tampere): The Contested Concept of Worker in Finland in the Long 19th Century.

ABSTRACT. Education is a strong reformational tool, as it is organised around images of a desired future society it should realize or reinforce. Hence educational policies and activities should not be studied separately as an individual sector, but as an integral part of societal and political sphere.

The proposed paper focuses on the images of a desired future of educational policies of the social democratic labor movement in Finland and Sweden within the context of the welfare state development. Previous research on the history of the Nordic Welfare state has left educational aspect to a minor role. In addition, the focus of the previous research has been on institutions, not on the broader socio-political developments. The paper focuses on the progress narratives of education from the beginning of the worker's Bildung-project in the late 19th century to the establishment of the welfare state's educational system in 1960—1970. The analysis is based on the official programmes, congress memos and annual reports of the social democratic parties and the worker's educational associations. Reinhart Koselleck's idea of layered historical time is central when analysing the narratives.

The analysis brings forward two diverse branches within the educational ideas: 1) education serving the society and later on the welfare state, where ideas of equality, citizenship, democracy and modernity have been central; and 2) education serving the working class, where the Marxian ideas of the historical task of the class have been highlighted. Education has also served the individuals to consolidate their membership within the society both as workers and as citizens. The paper will bring forward educational objectives, including the alternatives and utopias that never became reality. Hence it casts new light on the development of the Nordic welfare state and challenges the previous ideas of the Nordic model as a social democratic project.

ABSTRACT. The Nordic welfare states are traditionally seen as being some of the most tolerant and inclusive societies in the world. In welfare scholarship, the Nordic welfare model has been labelled ‘universal’. However, this image of ‘all inclusive’ has been challenged both from a historical and a contemporary perspective. Most recent developments, not the least related to mass immigration and the refugee crisis, has underlined the limits of universalism. Nordic countries have tightened access for non-national citizens, immigration policies are becoming tougher, and political discourses have changed significantly. As a result the international image of ‘universal’ Norden has started to change leaving behind the impression of Nordic universalism being reformed. But also historians have challenged the image universalism as a key feature of the classical Nordic welfare state. They have paid attention to tensions between social citizenship and the strong roles of local self-government and labour market interests in welfare provision. They have also pointed out that processes of exclusion (or non-inclusion) were going on in the heydays of the Nordic welfare state from 1930s to the 1980s. The historical examples include the marginalization of women, eugenics and forced sterilization, and the treatment of Sami and Roma people, and immigrant groups. At this round table we’ll discuss the idea of Nordic universalism: Is Nordic universalism changing? Was the Nordic model ever universalistic? What does universalism mean? The main examples discussed will be the role of national borders and social rights and national citizenship. 

Organizers: Pauli Kettunen & Klaus Petersen 

Participants: 

• Saara Pellander, University of Helsinki: Policies of bordering in Finland 
• Heidi Vad Jønsson, SDU: Danish immigration policies 
• Teemu Ryymin, University of Bergen: Old and new ethnic minorities in the Nordic welfare state 
• Klaus Petersen & Pauli Kettunen: Comments and perspectives

ABSTRACT. During the 20th century virtually all inhabited areas of the planet Earth have become dependent on fossil fuels. With the rise of the concept of global warming, the use of fossil fuels has been connected with ever more ethical considerations and dilemmas. Fossil fuels are limited and non-renewable, and during the last 50 years the idea of replacing fossil fuels with renewable, sustainable energy sources has gained momentum. To tackle this issue, historians, planners and philosophers have joined forces to investigate the ethical dimensions of long term energy production, energy planning and energy consumption.

In this session we would like to present some results arising from our collaborative and interdisciplinary research project, “Ethics and energy” funded by the Danish Research Council for the Humanities.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Finn Arler (Aalborg University, Denmark): Energy and ethics
2. Kristian Høyer Toft (Aalborg University, Denmark): Corporate ecological citizenship among Danish energy companies from ca. 2000-
3. Karl Sperling (Aalborg University, Denmark): Danish municipalities’ role in energy planning - what have we learned since the structural reform of 2007?
4. Mogens Rüdiger (Aalborg University, Denmark) & Bo Poulsen (Aalborg University, Denmark): The greening of Denmark’s energy consumption. Mapping the presence and spread of the agenda of sustainability, c. 1970-present

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Finn Arler

Energy and ethics

The research project Energy and ethics is a project about ethics in practice. It focuses on the role of ethics in energy policy and planning since the 1960s – with a special focus on the Danish energy sector's transition towards sustainability. The starting point is Danish national policy, but decisions concerning ethics in energy use and planning are investigated on both the individual, corporate, local, national and international levels. This paper will focus on the changing ethical themes on the national level and discuss some of the methodological issues related to the integration of ethical theory and history writing.

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Kristian Høyer Toft

Corporate ecological citizenship among Danish energy companies from ca. 2000-

The Danish state has since the 1990es actively promoted corporate social responsibility. Later on, documenting the corporate responsibility for climate change and the environment became a legal and mandatory requirement in the annual report in Denmark (2009-). During the same period, companies have themselves increasingly and voluntarily engaged in a sustainable transition away from fossil fuel dependency. Based on interviews in three Danish larger corporations (Vestas, Dong Energy and Mærsk) (Toft & Rüdiger forthcoming), issues and dilemmas in the Danish energy industry during the last 10 years pertaining to corporate environmentalism are investigated and discussed. The study shows that Danish companies in the energy industry perceive themselves as both rational profit-seeking actors, but at the same time also as political agents – corporate citizens – carrying a moral responsibility for promoting a sustainable transition in society at large.

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Karl Sperling Title: Danish municipalities’ role in energy planning - what have we learned since the structural reform of 2007?

Local authorities have traditionally been strongly involved in the energy sector in Denmark, both, as planning authorities in relation to e.g. district heating, and owners of municipal energy companies. Since the structural reform of 2007 the ambitions of the now larger municipalities in terms of energy and climate issues have grown. The upcoming COP 15 has also had some reinforcing effect, and, as also seen in other countries, the inertia of national energy and climate politics. Taking further point of departure in the evolving national framework of ”Strategic Energy Planning”, recent research on the concrete ”space for action” for municipalities in energy planning is presented. Here, the focus is on what motivates municipalities to take action beyond their traditional tasks as local authorities. The results indicate that innovative energy activities are carried by committed (individual) employees who devleop creative approaches out of green motives, on the hand, and financial constraints, on the other.

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Bo Poulsen & Mogens Rüdiger

The greening of Denmark’s energy consumption. Mapping the presence and spread of the agenda of sustainability, c. 1970-present

The publication of the Brundtland-report in 1987 and the subsequent debate on sustainability turned out to be a discourse changer in Danish energy policy and consumption. From a primary focus on energy security to an openness and willingness to introduce a green transition, i.e. to increased use of renewables. The soaring energy price crises in 1973 and 1979 convinced most parts of the Danish population that energy saving was feasible. Thereby, they contributed to slower the growth rate of energy consumption together with an improved efficiency in production of energy and other commodities. After 1987, a melting pot of government regulation, business interests, NGO’s, and a widespread interest in improving environment and climate paved the way for the greening of the energy consumption.

ABSTRACT. Today millions of families are separated because of war, asylum, or work. Contemporary working life requires mobility and migration has generated various systems for communication and money transfers from abroad to home. In this session we focus on the mobile family life of early modern people. By leaning on the concept of mobile and split household the session provides perspectives on social groups which either moved with the (male) head of the household or split up when he (or other family members) left home for earning. We argue that the early modern household was not a firm unity, but its composition was constantly under transformation. The family members’ roles and responsibilities could alter. Many households were far from the Lutheran ideals (hustavlan) of social order and gendered division of work. For instance, soldiers, naval and merchant sailors, seasonal workers, apprentices and vagrant labor often had wives and children, but seldom a permanent home. In our papers we discuss how maintaining the family was performed in practice. In some cases, the family followed the male breadwinner and his work. In other cases, the family had to split up and the wife to take over many social responsibilities of the husband. The wives also often had to assume an important economic role in supporting the family. The session is contributed by the four younger generation PhDs and is based on their recent or ongoing research.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Annasara Hammar (Stockholm University, Sweden): Sailors’ families and household strategies during the 17th century
2. Merja Uotila (University of Jyväskylä, Finland): Mobility within rural artisan’ household in early modern Finland
3. Sofia Maria Gustafsson (Independent Scholar, Finland): The Soldier’s Wife – Single Mother or Eager Entrepreneur?
4. Pirita Frigren (University of Jyväskylä, Finland): arried to the sea: merchant sailors’ wives as coordinators of the household economy in the nineteenth century

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS

AnnaSara Hammar: Sailors' families and household strategies during the 17th century.

In my presentation, I discuss naval sailors' families and the conditions that shaped their household strategies before 1680. During this period Swedish naval sailors were recruited through the older allotment system, which made farmers and burghers partly responsible for the sailors’ recruitment, paying, feeding, clothing and housing. This in turn made the sailor, his wife and children dependent both on a rural local community and on the irregular payments from the Admiralty. From 1653 married sailors were entitled to a small cottage, but it is unclear to what extent the regulation was obeyed. From source material it is evident that sailors' families many times lived a mobile life and that the families were under the constant threat of separation and poverty. I investigate how this forced mobility affected the sailors' families and their household strategies. How did they manage to make a living? How did they handle the suspicion and exposure it meant to belong to a mobile group in early modern Sweden? And how were they affected by existing gender - and domestic ideals?

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Merja Uotila: Mobility within rural artisan’ household in early modern Finland

Craft trades employed various kinds of work practices in early modern times. Sometimes the mobility was a major part of the handicraft profession. For instance, in countryside tailors and shoemakers did not have specific workshops; they went from one customer to another, living at their expense for a week or two while carrying out their work assignments. In the mean time they wives and children stayed at home and took care of the domestic responsibilities. Others, like smiths or tanners were usually tied to their smithery or tannery where customers brought the work assignments. In this presentation the attention is on the rural artisan household and its mobility patterns. Most artisans were married and their family included wife, children and apprentices. How the distribution of work and maintaining the family was arranged, is not, however, clear-cut. Sometimes man’s absence left wife to take care of household business. Occasionally the time away from home expanded to months especially when many artisans were sometimes forced to seek temporary employment in towns. The presentation is based on prosopographical, hence individualistic approach and employs diverse source material including church records, tax rolls and other sort of juridical and administrative material.

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Sofia Gustafsson: The Soldier’s Wife – Single Mother or Eager Entrepreneur?

In eighteenth-century Sweden there were two kinds of soldiers; soldiers in tenure regiments and in enlisted regiments. The first group received a croft on the countryside as a part of their salary, where they spent most of the year in peacetime, while the second group either lived in garrisons in the cities or sustained themselves in different ways during unpaid leaves. Both kind of soldiers could be married and have families, especially among the tenure regiments married soldiers were the norm. The construction works on the sea fortress of Suomenlinna outside Helsinki in mideighteenth century provides an example of how soldiers’ families could cope with the husbands’ mobility. The Crown commanded soldiers from tenure regiments all over Sweden to Helsinki for the construction works. Many families stayed at their croft, somehow managing their livelihood in the husbands’ absence. However, some soldiers, especially from the region of Ostrobothnia, brought their wives and children with them to Helsinki. Also soldiers from three enlisted regiments were commanded to Helsinki for garrison duties. Nearly all the married soldiers brought their families with them. The soldiers’ wives and female companions took an active part in sustaining their families and practiced all kinds of legal and illegal economic activities in the urban environment. The family’s survival could not depend on the husbands’ income alone. The soldiers’ families could thus use different strategies during commandments: either split up the family or becoming a mobile household. The choice depended on feasible economic options, but also on household composition, length of stay and social networks, both within the local communities and within the military corporation. It was probably also influenced by personal qualities and choices, although the source material rarely allows us to study human affection.

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Pirita Frigren: Married to the sea: merchant sailors’ wives as coordinators of the household economy in the nineteenth century

Finnish seaports Like in many other coeval seaports, merchant seamen’s families in the nineteenth century Finnish coastal cities lived in the situation where families were broken for unpredictable times. As men were recruited to deep sea transports there was no limit for how long journeys would take. While the minimum time was at least around the year, shipwrecks, wartime, illnesses, accidents and seamen’s desertions could also make the separation longer, if not permanent. In these circumstances the household economy was in the hands of wives. In this paper I ask how the family subsistence was handled in practice while men were at seas. I argue that the household economy was a combination of husband’s breadwinning and the local scheme of transmission of wages to home and contributions of wives (and children). While the question of women’s labor force participation in the early modern era largely is discussed and found uneasy to trace in the sources, I understand women’s contributions to the household economy as multitude of both paid and unpaid efforts of earning, saving money, reciprocity with neighbors, and promoting their own issues inside the local community. The paper is based on collective biographical analysis compiled from varying documents and registers of local government and Evangelic-Lutheran church.

ABSTRACT. In line with a deeper liberal tradition, British contemporary social and cultural historians turned attention to ‘history from below' in the 1970s. Historians and museum curators in the US, Canada, New Zealand, Australia and recently also South Africa followed suit with 'public history'. Their works have mostly focused on working class and gender, the welfare state, and local histories of slavery and the anti-slavery struggle.

Following the broader 'memory boom', contemporary historians also gradually began to take an interest in society's memory. This shift appears to have partly preceded and partly opened for the recognition that people use the past to navigate the present and plan for the future. Today, historians globally examine how people and societies have made national pasts with the emergence of the nation state and decolonisation, abused history as part of building up to genocides, and used history commercially.

Recently, more contemporary historians around the world have gotten socially involved due to the ‘memory turn’, the growing acceptance of the past being experienced in multiple temporalities, and how historical wounds and historically informed conflicts have (re-)surfaced after the Cold War, taking part in historical dialogues, discussing reconciliation and historical justice after civil wars, genocide, and military regimes etc.

Altogether, it would seem fair to say that the interest of contemporary historians in both social relevance and public engagement has increased. It is this vibrant global reformation of the mindset of the contemporary historian we wish to connect to.

However,shifting from the academic historian on their own, we seek to broaden the scope. History permeates society, and needs to be discussed as such. Subsequently, we interrogate how we can actively discuss and/or promote public engagement in the context of secondary school history education, university degree programmes in history, in the archives and the museums.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Maren Lytje (University College Nordjylland & Aalborg University, Denmark): Teaching the Concepts of Justice and Evil in Secondary Education
2. Martin Ottovay Jørgensen (Aalborg University, Denmark): How to Help the Next Generation of Engaged Historians get on Their Way?
3. Line Vestergaard Knudsen (Aalborg University, Denmark): Museums to turn around Decay?

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Maren Lytje (University College Nordjylland & Aalborg University, Denmark): Teaching the Concepts of Justice and Evil in Secondary Education

This paper asks how history in secondary education might cultivate the ethical and political compass of the students and help them think through the ethical and political questions of justice and evil in the contemporary world. The paper takes its point of departure in the field of perpetrator studies which is expanding rapidly, partly as a result of the dissemination of perpetrator bibliographies and fictional literature and partly due to the expanding sociological and historical literature on the aftermaths of mass atrocities and genocide. While there is an established consensus in perpetrator studies that it is counterproductive to present the perpetrator as radically evil, this paper suggests that evil might still be a productive ethical and political category for students to “think with” as long as it is adapted to the “banal evil” of the biopolitical regimes of our own time. The paper suggests that focusing on the figure of the “desk perpetrator” might help the students consider the evasion of ethical responsibility involved in following e.g. organizational procedures, rules and regulations.

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Martin Ottovay Jørgensen (Aalborg University, Denmark): How to Help the Next Generation of Engaged Historians get on Their Way?

Consisting of three parts, this paper asks how to help the next generation of engaged historians get on their way, addressing the issue of how to connect current and future history students with the ongoing shift towards public engagement. Tapping into the literature associated with the tectonic shift of the role of the contemporary historian, the first part makes the case for ‘the engaged historian’, pleading that historians need to engage as a growing number of actors both use and abuse history politically and commercially and that our students need to be prepared for this reality when they finish their studies and begin to work themselves. The second part revolves around a taught Bachelor course on how societies and individuals relate to and use history at Aalborg University. Specifically, it will offer reflections on course structure, curriculum, past experiences, current practices, and ideas for the future. Finally, the third part reflects broader ideas for teaching, which involve a call for more emphasis of the socio-political context of the discipline in its different presences in the educational system.

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Line Vestergaard Knudsen (Aalborg University, Denmark): Museums to turn around Decay?

Museums have always interacted with the world around them. Curators are dependent on sites where objects are produced and used and depend on contexts of objects, exhibition and display. But what happens when museums also pursue to influence physical and architectural planning in societies where they are located? In the current Danish situation of provincial degeneration (which can be seen in negative population, economic and social growth rates), some Danish museums have taken action. With their cultural historical expertise, they advocate for and help carry out plans for renovation and conservation of certain buildings, cultural environments or landscapes, in order to heighten the capital of cultural heritage in those areas. Some museums, more or less explicitly, do this in a fight against societal developments of urbanization with an aim to turn around visible decay and negative growth rates in the provinces. However, such museum practices should be reflected and discussed with regard to the role of museums in society. Are museums here to help form our concrete physical environments or to help shape mental landscapes of historical consciousness?

ABSTRACT. The aim of the session is to compare and analyze reforms of the teacher educations in Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden from 1945 up to the present day, with a focus on the period from 1960s. During this period, teacher education was reformed several times and transformed thoroughly in all of the countries. A common change that teacher education underwent during this period in all countries, but still in slightly different ways, was that it became an academic education connected to the universities.

The participants will for example describe and analyze why and how the different reforms were prepared, who participated in the reform process, which arguments were used by different actors that were for or against the reforms, for example politicians and the teacher unions. Various societal changes that has affected teacher training will also be highlighted. An important process in all countries was the development during the 1960s and 1970s of a comprehensive school system, which influenced teacher education in different ways. Later, influences from new public management and the PISA-tests have affected reforms of teacher education.

There are both similarities and differences between the countries that will be discussed. A comparison between these countries’ teacher educations can give new perspectives on the development in each country. The many similarities between the countries social, economic, cultural and political structures make it easier to discern the central characteristics of each country’s development, and facilitate understanding and explanations of why and how teacher education has changed. The sessions consist of three presentations: one about Denmark, one about Norway and a joint presentation about Sweden and Finland.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Kirsten Krogh-Jespersen (Aarhus, Denmark): Changes in teacher education in Denmark from about 1960 till today
2. Randi Skjelmo (University of Tromsø, Norway): Teacher Education in Norway 1945-2009
3. Jari Salminen (Helsinki University, Finland), Janne Säntti (Uppsala University, Sweden), Janne Holmén (Uppsala University, Sweden), Niklas Stenlås (Uppsala University, Sweden): Comparing the teacher education in Finland and Sweden from the 1960’s

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

Changes in teacher education in Denmark from about 1960 till today.

Kirsten Krogh-Jespersen, former associate professor in pedagogics and didactics in Teacher Education in Aahus, Denmark.

The vision for the society after the Second World War was Denmark to become a nation of independent though solidary democratic internationally orientated people, working hard to ensure the growth and the welfare of the country. Right after the war school was still ‘the black school’ but during the fifties the attitude against children gradually changed inspired from the reform pedagogic movement. In 1966 a new Teacher Education law represented a reformation of teacher education and thereby of the school. The law was well prepared involving politicians, civil servants, teacher educators and teachers in a process of four years. The headlines were teacher professionalization, academization, democratization, ‘dannelses’orientation, both broad and deep content oriented subject studies, emphasizing student participation and personal development. This law was more or less the foundation of Teacher Education up till 2012, though financial problems during the 70th and the 80th caused some reductions and New Public Management movement and changes in the understanding of the society – from welfare to competition - gradually undermined the aims and caused changings in the management of the education. The international tests, most of all PISA, showed that Danish pupils performed average in the subject tests which caused severe critics of the school system and especially of the teachers. This in combination with the understanding of the society as ‘konkurrencesamfund’, (competition society) formed the basics for the new teacher education (2012). I, and many other teacher educators, consider the resent changes in Teacher Education a decline, not a reformation. The key ideas are: instrumentalization, narrow evidence based didactics, module structured subject studies, result/ kompetenceoriented goals which all together lead to a deprofessionalization of the teachers. The 2012 law was rushed through with very little preparation and involving only a handful of politicians, civil servants and researchers.

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Teacher Education in Norway 1945-2009

Randi Skjelmo, associate professor, Department of Education, UiT - The Norwegian University of the Arctic.

Teacher education for primary and secondary school has in Norway gone through a lot of reforms after the second world- war. Up to 1973 two separate ways was possible to become a teacher. The requirement was either an entrance exam given by the state followed by 4 years of education, or examen artium (gymnas) followed by 2 years. In the 4-year-classes the candidates were mainly recruited from rural areas, many of them young men. The cities, with access to further education, recruited mainly young women, for the 2-year courses. In the 1973-reform, all teacher education for primary and secondary school was lifted up to “student-level” , should last for at least 3 years and give the candidates competence to teach all levels and all subject in the newly reformed nine-year compulsory primary and secondary school. My presentation will focus on the 1973 reform act. I will analyse why and how it was worked out, who participated, which arguments were used, who won and who lost? Later reforms, in 1991, 1998, 2009, will be seen in the prolongation of the 1973- reform. In recent years Norway has been looking to Finland for educational answers. Earlier, “Look to Sweden” was a motto for education reforms. This session will be a possibility to compare teacher education in the Nordic countries. In my doctoral theses on changes in Norwegian teacher education I used Margaret Archer’s theories from Social origins, as I will do in this presentation, by using her definition of a national educational system and her concepts unification and systematisation.

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Comparing the teacher education in Finland and Sweden from the 1960-s

Jari Salminen and Janne Säntti, associate professors, Department of Teacher Education, University of Helsinki, Finland, Björn Furuhagen, Janne Holmén, and Niklas Stenlås, associate professors, Department of History, Uppsala University, Sweden.

In this paper, we examine the teacher education policies of two Nordic countries, Sweden and Finland. The two countries are in many ways similar welfare societies, but have still made very different decisions considering their teacher education policies. The focus of this article is upon how the traditions and goals of teacher education, and especially the vision of the ideal teacher, have changed from the 1960s until today. In Finland, the period can be described as gradual scientification of teacher education. The image of the ideal teacher has also transformed according to a research-based agenda in which the teacher is expected to conduct minor-scale research in his own classroom. In Sweden, the teachers, the teacher education and the teacher students were clearly seen as instruments and tools for the reformation of not only the school but the entire society. Thus, the ideal teacher should be aware of and interested in the school reform and its underlying ideology. Scientificity was an important goal of teacher education also in the reports of Swedish committees, but although scientificity was adopted as a goal in the political decisions, the political level did not provide the means to achive it outlined in the reports. The differences between the two countries were in part caused by unexpected synergies between various reforms and societal developments, but also by deeper differences in pedagogical traditions, for example regarding the relationship between the teacher and the state.

ABSTRACT. In the decades following World War II, state-administered development aid emerged as a new area for policy and action in the Scandinavian countries. Family planning and population control were promoted right from the start. Population control was seen as a crucial precondition for modernization of the Third World, and also as a security concern in the volatile context of Cold War and decolonization. At the same time, however, population control was deeply controversial as it involved the promotion of contraceptives. Religious and ethical opposition, mainly from Catholic countries, made population control difficult to promote through multilateral aid. In this situation, the Scandinavian countries – perceiving themselves as particularly secularized and unfettered by religious concerns, and seeing family planning as a means to liberating women – strove to promote family planning bilaterally instead. While family planning and the use of contraceptives remained controversial also in the Scandinavian countries, a number of individual actors with a longstanding interest in population planning supported the Scandinavian promotion of family planning, both through bilateral aid and through international fora. Later on, questions of women’s health and reproductive rights, which had often been a marginal concern for the early activists, came to be more and more integrated into programmes of family planning. This panel will discuss connections – and discontinuations – between transnational, “development”-oriented measures of population control and previous domestic population policies in the Scandinavian countries, in terms of actors, ideas and practices, as well as connections – and discontinuations – between support for population control and reproductive rights, and perhaps also women’s rights in a more general sense. We will also make comparisons between the policies and practices that emerged from the different Scandinavian countries, and put their development into a larger transnational and global context.

ABSTRACT. «Hvordan fikk dere til å sikre det norske folket inntekter fra olja? Er det fordi amerikanske oljeselskaper ikke har kontroll over Norge, slik de har i hjemlandet mitt, Angola?», spurte en lærerstudent våren 2016. Med utgangspunkt i forskning som viser at elever med minoritetsbakgrunn opplever historieundervisningen som irrelevant, tar artikkelen opp sentrale historiedidaktiske utfordringer for skolen. Sentralt er majoritetskulturens hegemoni i skolens historiske narrativer, forholdet mellom globale perspektiver og regionale samfunnsendringer, hvordan personlig identifikasjon kreves for å forstå betydningen samfunnsendringer i fortiden har for den enkeltes liv og hvordan historiebevissthet gir elevene mulighet til å bruke fortiden som et grunnlag for å forstå samtiden og vurdere muligheter og utfordringer i fremtidens samfunn. Denne studien problematiserer to spørsmål: 1) Hvorfor inkluderer ikke læreboktekstene internasjonale perspektiver i den norske oljehistorien? 2) På hvilken måte blir det lagt til rette for at alle elever - uavhengig av kulturell eller geografisk tilhørighet- kan få oppleve norsk oljehistorie som relevant for sin samfunnsorientering? Datamaterialet i studien er en idéanalyse av lærebøker i bruk i norsk grunnskole i dag, der både tekstens utforming og innhold har betydning for de relevante problemstillingene. Funnene peker mot at norsk oljehistorie presenteres som en eventyrfortelling der nasjonale hensyn gis avgjørende betydning, mens internasjonale forhold i liten grad er belyst. Narrativene er lukkede og åpner i liten grad for å bygge bro mellom norske samtidsforhold, historiske forhold og elevenes egne refleksjoner.

ABSTRACT. Paperet præsenterer et forsknings- og udviklingsprojekt om elevgenererede læremidler og elevaktiverende fremgangsmåder i tilrettelæggelsen af historieundervisningen, som HistorieLab gennemfører fra efteråret 2016.

Projektet er et aktionsforsknings-/udviklingsprojekt, der gennemføres i samarbejde mellem ansatte på HistorieLab og et antal lærere, der underviser i historie på mellemtrinnet og i overbygningen. Projektets afsæt er HistorieLabs kortlægning af historieundervisningen i grundskolen ”Historiefaget i fokus – dokumentationsindsatsen” (2016). Den viste bl.a., at • Læreren og tilgængelige læremidler typisk var afgørende for valg af forløb (emner/teamer) • Læreren præsenterede forløbet – uden nødvendigvis at knytte dets relevans til elevernes livsverden og forforståelse • Læreren fastlagde organisationsform, definerede opgaver og produkter.

Alt i alt har eleverne generelt en begrænset indflydelse på undervisningens form og indhold. Det må antages, at det er del af forklaringen på, at mange elever har svært ved at se sammenhænge mellem skolefaget og deres hverdagsliv – og ikke oplever historieundervisningen som motiverende og udfordrende.

Projektet sigter på gennem forsøg og eksperimenter at finde konkrete fremgangsmåder og udvikle en prakisrettet didaktik, som understøtter elevernes kompetencer til at reflektere og skabe historie.

Projektet søger at besvare følgende spørgsmål: • Hvilke igangsættende ”anslag” kan man som lærer anvende for at ”trigge” elevernes interesse for et historisk hændelsesforløb - og fremme deres opleves af, at det er så relevant og vedkommende, at de stiller meningsfulde spørgsmål, der kan bearbejdes til historiske problemstillinger? • Hvad skal der til for at eleverne selvstændigt i mindre grupper kan vælge kilder fra en ”kildebank”, analysere kilderne og bruge dem til at belyse den valgte problemstilling? • Hvilken betydning har arbejdet med elevgenererede læremidler for elevernes motivation for at arbejde med historie?

Ved deadline for aflevering af paperet, er projektet endnu ikke afsluttet. Paperet vil derfor lægge vægt på valg af forskningsdesign og præsentere foreløbige resultater.

ABSTRACT. Nettsteder har blitt en vanlig type læremiddel i skolens historieunderundervisning. Det betyr at elevene utvikler demokratisk kompetanse med historiefaget på andre måter enn da bare lærebøkene og andre skriftlige tekster dominerte som læremidler. Denne artikkelen presenterer en undersøkelse av NDLA (Nasjonal digital læringsarena) sine historieressurser. NDLA er det mest brukte digitale læremiddelet i norsk videregående skole, og har erstattet læreboken helt eller delvis på flere skoler. Problemstillingen er hvilke endringer som skjer i utviklingen av demokratisk kompetanse når historieundervisningen går fra lærebok til et utdanningsrettet historienettsted og hva dette har å si for lærere og elever (og lærebøker). Undersøkelsen diskuterer drivkrefter og kritiske punkter i utviklingen av demokratisk kompetanse på nettstedet ved å utføre en pentadetolkning (forholdet mellom aktør, handling, virkemiddel, scene og hensikt). Det teoretiske grunnlaget er Kenneth Burkes dramatisme, som innebærer en forståelse av den menneskelige livsverden som et drama i endring, slik det kommer til utrykk som symbolhandlinger (språk med hensikt). Undersøkelsen skal diskutere når et utdanningsrettet nettsted kan være best for læring og når læreboken er best, og hvilket potensial som ligger i å supplere bok og skjerm. Formålet med studien er å bidra til en mer nyansert forståelse av historienettstedets historiedidaktikk og av begrep som kan forklare den. Slik vil forskningsprosjektets resultatet kunne bidra til å videreutvikle historieundervisning for det digitale demokratiet.

ABSTRACT. Elever möter historia i en rad olika sammanhang; i media, i spel, i reklam, i filmer och i historiska faktaprogram på TV för att nämna några. Elevernas uppfattningar och kunskaper har därför sannolikt formats redan innan de möter skolans undervisning och därefter formas de som en parallell process. I skolans historieundervisning spelar läromedlen fortfarande en viktig roll. De används i olika utsträckning och på olika sätt, men de finns ändå där som en konstant. En intressant spänning kan därför uppstå mellan elevernas förkunskaper, deras förväntningar och den bild av det förflutna de möter i skolan. I denna presentation tar jag det inom historiedidaktiken tidigare svagt beforskade begreppet förväntning eller förväntan som utgångspunkt. Jag studerar vilka förväntningar eleverna har på, och vad de menar är viktigt och vad de vill lära sig om, en historisk epok som de ännu inte har studerat i skolan – kalla kriget. Elevernas förväntningar jämförs med läromedlens urval och beskrivning av epoken. Studien bygger på gruppintervjuer med svenska elever i årskurs 8 och en analys av historieläroböcker för årskurs 9. Resultaten diskuteras i ljuset av syften och innehållsbeskrivningen i den kursplan i historia som infördes i Sverige från 2011.

ABSTRACT. Reformation in the Nordic area was put into effect through royal initiatives in Sweden and Denmark, whereas in Livonia the towns played a leading role in promoting the religious change. The following processes of reforming the liturgy and religious life were lengthy and complicated, and it took more than decades for the new forms to be firmly established. How did this show in the lived religion of the populace? How did they adapt their personal religious lives to the Lutheran doctrine? Through four different points of view, this session will focus on lived religion and folk beliefs in the Reformation period and pose the question: how did the religious practices and beliefs of the people respond to the new ideology promoted by the clerical and secular institutions? The session concentrates on themes of religious practices, Saints, death, as well as popular religion, putting the uniformity of Lutheran orthodoxy under critical scrutiny. Examining the purification of religious practices, rituals, and ceremonies in Finland reveals that it was a two-way process, in which also some seemingly pagan folk practices, like the vernacular oral poetry, were adapted into Lutheran use. The Eastern Baltic will be brought into discussion by examining the anxieties related to popular religion in the socially stratified, multi-lingual and multi-ethnic border areas. Regarding a believer’s relationship to afterlife, some central elements in the Catholic times had been the cults of Saints and the ars moriendi. They had political dimensions that were found useful even in the newly reformed societies. An account of a worthy death was a political asset that could be utilised by those left behind in power struggles. In the same way, the Saints were still useful as role models for Christians, even though their role in the salvation of believers was abolished.

PRESENTATIONS:

1. Tuomas M S Lehtonen (Finnish Literature Society, Finland): Rituals, clergymen, folk-beliefs and oral tradition in the Early Modern Sweden and Finland
2. Linda Kaljundi (University of Tallinn, Estonia): Reformation and the other: Transforming images of the Eastern Baltic peoples
3. Nils Holger Petersen (University of Copenhagen, Denmark): Traces of Saints’ Significance for Sixteenth-Century Lutherans
4. Anu Lahtinen (University of Helsinki, Finland): ”In thee, O Lord, do I put my trust.” Reactions to untimely death in early modern noble households.

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS

Tuomas M. S. Lehtonen

Rituals, clergymen, folk‐beliefs and oral tradition in the Early Modern Sweden and Finland

During the Reformation understanding of the ritual changed deeply and the very term ‘ritual’ was coined. In early modern Sweden and Finland ecclesiastical struggle about the ceremonies turned into an intensive scrutiny of all kinds of religious practices both learned and popular. At the Uppsala meeting in 1593 the ceremonies, i.e. the Elevation of the Host and the use of candles and salt were be abolished if their use was superstitious. Two years later the abolition was unconditional. Soon after in 1595 Petrus Melartopaeus arrived to Turku (Swe. Åbo), Finland and started his work to purify the religious practices there. About same time in 1596—97 Archbishop of Uppsala Abraham Angermannus inspected the province of Östergötaland and gave more than 700 sentences on adultery, superstition, impious conduct and offences against the sacraments. In this paper I will concentrate on Petrus Melartopaeus together with his fellow clergymen in Finland. I will compare the up‐rooting of folk‐beliefs and ritual practices in Finland to the Angermannus’ visitation and to some other contemporary documents.   In Finland the purification of religious practices went hand in hand in adaptation of some features of the vernacular oral poetry, so‐called Kalevala metric poetry, into Lutheran hymns. It was done rather surprisingly by Petrus Melartopaeus as well. This goes against the common scholarly argument that the peculiar Finnish oral poetic idiom was interpreted as ‘pagan’ hence avoided by the Lutheran clergymen. It seems that so‐called Lutheran orthodoxy was less uniform as often argued. Neither it worked in one direction only from the religious elite above to the ordinary people under.

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Reformation and the other: Transforming images of the Eastern Baltic peoples

Linda Kaljundi

Often lauded for educational achievements, the Reformation movement is also known for the suppression of traditional popular culture. Moreover, the negative attitudes towards popular culture and religion appear to connect closely to the aims of educating the lower classes and involving them into various religious practices. This paper examines the anxieties related to popular religion in the socially stratified multilingual and multi-ethnic border areas, focusing on the Eastern Baltic. In Livonia, colonised in the thirteenth century, social hierarchies started to match ethnic borders more closely namely around the sixteenth century. From the sixteenth century onwards, a new kind of an imagery of the Livonian peoples also emerges in the learned discourse. These representations highlight the inferiority of the native groups, depicted as radically different concerning their social status, cultural and religious customs and knowledge. Examining these often very detailed depictions, the paper is interested in the ways these texts connect religious issues to the representations of social hierarchies and the related anxieties. In the Eastern Baltic, religious arguments had been used for legitimising power ever since the thirteenth-century crusades. Around the sixteenth century, however, the authors deprive the natives of their agency, linking their religious choices to their rulers. The political conflicts in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth century further encouraged these developments, making the religiosity of the lower classes a tool used widely for criticising the rivalling – either Catholic or Protestant – elites. In parallel to this, representations of radical religious superstitions were used in the Humanist critique against the exploitation of the Livonian natives. However, it is worth asking whether these various discourses concerning the Livonian natives only bear witness to patronising attitudes, or do they also show signs of fear and anxiety towards the other, which one might expect in colonial contexts.

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Nils Holger Petersen:

Traces of Saints’ Significance for Sixteenth-Century Lutherans

The Danish Lutheran Reformation was introduced by royal decree in 1536, followed up by regulations through the issuing of official Church Orders over the following years. Lutheran preachers, however, had been at work in Denmark also in the 1520s, possibly indicating a popular reception of the Lutheran or Evangelical movement within (parts of) the population. It is not easy to find out what “ordinary” people thought about the changes and how these influenced actual religious beliefs. In this paper, I propose to use a few preserved Danish post-Reformation texts about medieval saints as a lense through which to review at least some aspects of this broad question. As is well known, the reformers of the sixteenth century did not abolish the notion of sainthood. They rather changed it to refer to ”ideal” believers, a kind of role models for Christians, rejecting any role these figures might have been thought to have for the salvation of believers. In the second half of the sixteenth century a saint’s play about Saint Knud Lavard (canonised in 1169 by Pope Alexander III) was copied by a school teacher from Ringsted, the Ludus de sancto Kanuto Duce, possibly a modified medieval saint’s play, cleansed of its “Roman Catholic” ideology. Similarly, the Danish Lutheran Humanist and pastor Anders Sørensen Vedel rewrote earlier ballads about Knud Lavard as well as other medieval saints, precisely to present them as important historical figures, but not as saints as traditionally understood, although he did call these figures saints. Such texts give a picture of what Lutheran officials found necessary to revise or correct, thereby indirectly referencing surviving beliefs and attitudes in post-Reformation Denmark.

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Anu Lahtinen

"In thee, O Lord, do I put my trust." Reactions to untimely death in early modern noble households.

My presentation deals with accounts of untimely death in early modern noble households. As is well known, accounts of early modern deathbed scenes usually follow the medieval tradition of mors beata, the ideal course of preparing for departure. The dying person was supposed to excel in ars moriendi, art of dying, and to follow a certain procedure when preparing to meet one's maker. The plot for dying was important for the contemporaries, and they did their best to imitate the ideal manuscript. A sudden death, especially a death of close family members, was a shock, then as now. For political enemies, a sudden death opened up possibilities for spiteful speculations about the reasons behind the demise. Even shocks of this kind, however, could be used as cornerstones for building an honourable posthumous reputation. An account of a worthy death, or the lack of it, was an important asset in the political power struggles of the time. I will present examples of letters, poems and memoirs where untimely noble deaths - caused by illness, accident, warfare, or a death sentence - were described and discussed by members of a noble household. I will also discuss the possible changes that the process of Reformation had brought to the reactions of the dying person and her/his near relatives or servants. While the Lutheran church no longer organised masses or guaranteed salvation via economic investment, it was imperative for an aristocrat to rethink of her or his afterlife in the memory of the community.

ABSTRACT. Historiefaget har haft en omskiftelig position og rolle gennem tiden. Der er brug for nye bud på, hvordan historien kan begribes og forstås af lægmænd – herunder særligt børn.

Paperet undersøger, hvad sker der i krydsfeltet mellem historie, billedkunst og samfundsfag, når det anvendes i en læringssituation? Hvilke didaktiske implikationer har det i forhold til en ny historiebevidsthedsdidaktik? Hvad kendetegner den og hvordan udvikles og fungerer den? Samt hvilken form for historiebrug kommer til udtryk? Dette er nogle af de spørgsmål, der udforskes på baggrund af empiriske data fra Kolding Stadsarkivs udviklingsprojekt til den åbne skole.

Udviklingsprojektets udgangspunkt er, at det æstetiske sprog ligestilles med det rationelle. Således er hypotesen, at historie, billedkunst og samfundsfag kan bruges som gensidige nøgler til at åbne op for komplekse og abstrakte problemstillinger inden for alle tre fag. I paperet diskuteres konsekvenserne af og mulighederne i denne måde at arbejde tværfagligt på.

Projektets empiri bygger på et udviklingsprojekt ved Kolding Stadsarkiv, hvor der er blevet arbejdet med, hvordan arkivet kan omsætte tanken om den åbne skole til tværfaglige undervisningskoncepter, der sikrer en faglig progression gennem hele skoleforløbet.

Forudsætningen har været, at eleverne inviteres til at (be)røre historien med en æstetisk tilgang, lyst og genkendelighed til eget liv og berøringsflader. I projektet er der blevet arbejdet med, hvordan kildematerialets autenticitet kan inddrages som et didaktisk greb, der motiverer eleverne gennem deres sanser. Ligesom der har været fokus på elevernes læring gennem et selvskabt slutprodukt, hvor der er inddraget færdigheder fra alle tre fagligheder. Fx har billedkunstens taktile og kreative indgang til historien både understøttet den visuelle kulturhistorie, men også medvirket til at historiske scenarier og fortællinger har kunnet omsættes til et visuelt formsprog.

ABSTRACT. Att hävda att vetenskapligt orienterad historisk kunskap om det förflutna utgår från analysen av källor kan knappast uppfattas som en kontroversiell position. När den moderna historiedidaktiska forskningen började utvecklas under 1970-talet uppfattades källor som en möjlighet att komma bort från en memorerande historieundervisning(Husbands, Kitson & Pendry 2003). Engelska historiedidaktiker utvecklade senare progressionsmodeller kring elevers källförståelse (se t ex. Lee & Shemilt 2004). Även i den amerikanska historiedidaktiken kom källornas roll i undervisningen att diskuteras. Helt centralt är här Sam Wineburgs arbete Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts (2001) som kommit att forma mycket av diskussionen inom det historiedidaktiska fältet. Risken för presentism, att tolkningar av det förflutna sker på nutidens premisser, betecknas som en central idé kring vad som avses med historiskt tänkande. Att lyfta källor i undervisningen är ett sätt att möta risken med presentism. Modeller för hur källor ska analyseras av elever har också utvecklats (Wineburg 2011).

Men vad är det för källbegrepp som kommer till uttryck i dessa historiedidaktiska modeller? Empirisk forskning har nämligen pekat de problem som kan följa med hantering av källor i en undervisningssituation och där just förståelsen av källbegreppet varit en utmaning (Barton 2005; Stolare 2015; Stolare kommande). Hur kan begreppsanvändningen förklaras så som den kommer till uttryck i modellerna, i vilken relation står den till uppfattningar om det historiska forskningsfältet?

Utgångspunkten är här att förklaringar till de historiedidaktiska uttrycken kan sökas i uppfattningar om vad som är historisk kunskap och hur historisk kunskap skapas. I förlängningen handlar det om relation mellan historieundervisningen i skolan och det historievetenskapliga forskningsfältet.

Det empiriska materiellt kommer att utgöras av historiedidaktiska texter, framförallt hämtade från den engelskspråkiga världen och främst från den miljö som utvecklades i England med Peter Lee och Denis Shemilt som ledande företrädare, samt miljön kring Sam Wineburg.

ABSTRACT. For some years, historical thinking and reasoning has been an important educational goal for upper secondary education in many countries. The aim is to enable students to understand multiple historical perspectives, define historical significance, analyse sources and discuss change and continuity, to name a few of the central features. However, few studies have focused on professional development programs for (experienced) history teachers who wish to build up these skills. Teachers often find it difficult to imagine concrete daily teaching practices that are aligned with teaching history as an investigative process, in other words “what it looks like in the classroom.” This paper reports on the development of the domain-specific observation instrument Teach-HTR, a tool for further professionalization of experienced history teachers who wish to foster historical thinking and reasoning, as well as for those who are doing their initial teacher training. Furthermore, the results of the analysis of history lessons in Icelandic and Dutch upper secondary schools are discussed. The analysis showed how some elements of historical thinking and reasoning are very prominent, such as the explaining of historical phenomena, causes and consequences and providing historical context of events or actions of people in the past. Other items, especially those that have to do with providing explicit instructions on historical thinking strategies, are practically absent in the majority of lessons. The analysis of Icelandic history lessons was followed up by in-depth interviews with several history teachers who described their orientation and teaching behaviour. This reveals the connection between teacher’s view of the discipline, of historical thinking skills and their choice of teaching strategies.

ABSTRACT. Den parlamentariska demokratin etablerades successivt i de nordiska länderna på 1910-talet. Under revolutionsåret 1917 ifrågasattes styrelseformen visserligen på många håll i dessa länder och ledde i Finland rent av till en revolution, som kunde styrt landets politiska kultur i annan riktning.

Så gick det dock inte och i mitten av 1930-talet hörde de fyra nordiska länderna till de få nationerna i Europa som hade lyckats hålla fast vid sina demokratiska institutioner. På motsvarande sätt kom de nordiska demokratierna och deras politiska mekanismer även under kalla kriget ha vissa gemensamma drag som skilde dem från de övriga västeuropeiska demokratierna. Och även om EU- och EEA-medlemskapet på många sätt har likriktat länderna har deras politiska kulturer särdrag som uppfattas ute i världen som specifikt nordiska.

Men finns det fog för dessa uppfattningar och föreställningar om en särskild nordisk demokrati? Bottnar den eventuellt i en egenartade politisk kultur som har skapat en för demokratin särskilt gynnsam ”path dependency”? Eller har den samhälleliga utvecklingen i Nordeuropa snarast varit en följd av ländernas geopolitiska läge och naturresurser? Vi ställer dessa frågor genom att kontrastera årtalen 1917 och 2017 mot varandra och dryftar utgående från detta sekellånga perspektiv också hur framtiden för den nordiska demokratin ter sig.

ABSTRACT. Det overordnete temaet er motkreftene mot modernisering og opplysning på 1800-tallet, den lastefulle og private vrangsiden av liberalismens og den borgerlige offentlighetens idealer. Følgende undertemaer vil bli brukt som innfallsvinkel: • Lastefulle, inkompetentente og korrupte embetsmenn • Drikkevaner • Karakterdrap og satire i pressen og privatlivet • Feilbarlige prester som moralens voktere • Rabalderfolkemøter • Helserådets motstand mot bakteriologi: «inngrep mot privatlivets fred» Den nye konstitusjonen i Norge i 1814 markerte på det formelle plan et brudd med en autoritær styringsstruktur basert på personlige bånd og et uklart skille mellom privat og offentlig. Idealet var nå en upersonlig og rasjonell statsmakt, bygget på kunnskap, fellesnytte, meritokrati og en allmennvilje som var «lutret og modereret» av en opplyst maktelite. For å nå dette var det nødvendig med en reformasjon av de administrative vaner og sosiale mentaliteter, av hele den politiske kulturen. De etablerte mønstre en slik reformasjon hadde å slåss mot er levende skildret av Conrad Nicolai Schwach i hans skånselsløse Erindringer. Her møter vi den gamle, inkompetente amtmann Adeler. Han var så avhengig av sine underordnete at når han en sjelden gang måtte signere offentlige dokumenter selv, gjorde han det med påskriften, «i fravær af min fullmektig». Vi møter også en hemningsløs drikkekultur innenfor embetsstanden. Den nye tid krevde dokumentert kompetanse og gjorde eliten til gjenstand for judisiell og demokratisk kontroll. Et aspekt av dette var kampen for å få kontroll over korrupsjonen i embetsverket, en kamp som i første halvdel av 1800-tallet ble ført med langt større skarphet og effektivitet i det eneveldige Danmark enn i det konstitusjonelt styrte Norge. Dette faktum kan fortone seg paradoksalt, men bekrefter behovet for å se nærmere på vrangsiden av de hegemoniske idealer. Vi håper vi kan stimulere tilhørerne til å delta med ytterlige perspektiver, også fra de andre nordiske land.

ABSTRACT. En by er defineret som et sted, der er afhængigt af fødevaretilførsel. Det samme kan siges om forholdet mellem byen og vandet. Samtidig er by og vand ofte betragtet som antagonistiske fænomener: førstnævnte som idnbegrebet af (menneskeskabt) kultur, sidstnævnte som ren natur. Som urban grundbetingelse og modsætning er vand en voldsomt transformerende urban aktør, hvad enten det drejer sig om stormflod, havneanlæg eller offentlig hygiejne. Traditionelt har vand været undersøgt som naturressource eller trussel, adskilt fra den menneskeskabte by. Denne session vil beskæftige sig med den tætte sammenfletning mellem det urbane og det flydende, og de kulturhistoriske forandringer, det har forårsaget – især i urbane kontekster.

Vandet er byens miljø og omvendt. Gennem historien foregår udvekslingen mellem de to gennem et stadigt voksende antal grænseflader. Ved at anlægge et perspektiv på vand (fx havet) som en sammenføjning af det sociale, kulturelle og materielle træder forandringen af det urbane anderledes frem. I dette rumlige perspektiv ’flyder’ vandet og byen sammen, og mennesket er historisk på mange måder blevet taget med af strømmen. Vand, by og menneske kan anskues som én treklang, hvis grundtone konstant skifter.

Denne session består af fire oplæg, der på forskellig vis afspejler mulighederne i emnet på tværs af fagfelter. Der er tilstræbt en kronologisk spredning mellem de forskellige papers, ligesom hver forsker undersøger den valgte relation fra deres eget ståsted. Således er sessionen et forsøg på at åbne diskussionen af vand som transformerende aktør i byhistorien og mere generelt.

1. Eva Jakobsson (Universitetet i Stavanger): «Stockholm –Beauty on Water» - om Stockholms historia i ett vattensystemperspektiv.
2. Bjørn Poulsen (Aarhus Universitet): Havet, byerne og landet i middelalderen.
3. Kasper Holdgaard Andersen (Aarhus Universitet): Hav, urbanitet og dansk identitet ca. 1150-1350.
4. Mikkel Thelle (Aarhus Universitet): Vandet og den gennemtrængte by 1850-1914.

ABSTRACT. Historical research has interpreted state-building as a process directed from above. The early modern state of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries was built through orders and rules that controlled local societies and territories. Some historians have, however, interpreted state development as an interactive process. In some cases, the Crown had to negotiate with its subjects the terms of new rules or demands of the state. Sometimes the administration introduced had to be adapted to traditional local institutions.

However, this process can be looked at from the reverse angle – from below. One can ask, what was the role of the peasantry in this state-building process? Did they just obey new orders or did they try to influence the process? Did these attempts have any effect? If the Crown bargained with the peasantry, who were those in a local society who had some influence in these negotiations? The adaptation of the Crown’s institutions to local traditions can be interpreted as influence on the state-building process.

Local officials representing the state and the Church’s parish clergy had important roles in implementing the Crown’s new demands. On the other hand, they were a part of local societies and therefore they could take into account the opinions of locals. They became mediators between the local societies and the central authorities.

This round table discussion will look at the state-building process from below, from the side of the peasantry, peasant elites, local societies and local officials and parish priests from the 16th century to the beginning of the 19th century.

ABSTRACT. Nationellt baserade lexikon producerar och presenterar viktig historisk kunskap för forskare och allmänheten. Vår tids snabba digitalisering medför nya möjligheter och utmaningar. Traditionella lexikon i bokform får konkurrera med en mängd andra informationskällor på internet. Centrala punkter som relevanskriterier, författarskap, auktoritet, omfattning, innehåll, varaktighet, relationen till vetenskap och källor är i förändring. Hur möter nya och gamla lexikon digitaliseringens utmaningar och möjligheter? I ett rundabordssamtal mellan representanter för några av Nordens nationellt baserade lexikon redovisas varierande tillvägagångssätt, problem såväl som möjligheter. 

Deltagare: 

• Svenskt biografiskt lexikon: Åsa Karlsson (asa.karlsson@riksarkivet.se) 
• Finskt biografiskt lexikon: Henrika Tandefelt (henrika.tandefelt@helsinki.fi) 
• Store norske lexikon: Kjell-Olav Hovde (hovde@snl.no)
• Svenskt kvinnobiografiskt lexikon: Linus Karlsson (linus.karlsson@history.gu.se), Ulrika Lagerlöf-Nilsson (ulrika.lagerlof.nilsson@history.gu.se) 
• Danskt kvindebiografiskt lexikon: Jytte Nielsen (jytte.nielsen@kvinfo.dk), Birgitte Possing (bp@sa.dk)
  
  Moderator och organisatör: Maria Sjöberg (maria.sjoberg@history.gu.se)

ABSTRACT. Med denne rundbordsdiskussion vil vi gerne sætte fokus på de etiske udfordringer og dilemmaer, vi bliver stillet overfor, når vi som forskere undersøger, hvordan mennesker bruger fortid og skaber historie i deres hverdagspraksis, hvad enten det sker i offentlige, private, institutionelle eller personlige sammenhænge. Det vil vi gøre ud fra en vifte af empirifelter. Udgangspunktet er, at alle mennesker bruger fortid, og at fortider bruges på forskellig vis i men-neskers menings-, tolknings- og handlingsprocesser. Ontologisk set er der ikke forskel på forskeren som fortidsbruger og andre fortidsbrugere. Forskeren gør det ud fra en akademisk position med videnskabelige teorier og metoder, med henblik på ny viden, erkendelse og med en vis fordring om ’sandhed’. Når forskere tidligere har forholdt sig til andres fortidsbrug, er det ofte sket med den akademiske position som ’overdommer’ og den akademiske synsmåde som universel værdinorm i forhold til vurderingen af, hvad der er en adækvat (sand/rigtig/korrekt) måde at bruge fortid på. Kritik er et væsentlig raison d’etre for akademisk praksis, hvorfor det er rundbordsdiskussionens formål at nærme sig måder at forholde sig kritisk på som medtænker det forhold, at vi som forskere ikke taler fra et privilegeret stå-sted med monopol på sandhed og metode, men er fortidsbrugere på lige fod med alle andre. De enkelte perspektiver er beskrevet i vedhæftede beskrivelse.

ABSTRACT. Germany has since the 19th century been a country of great interest to Swedish musicians and composers, both as a platform for international attention and in order to get a musical education of high standard. During the Nazi period the musical connections were not cut off, but the reactions toward the excessive politicization of music were quite different. After World War II attempts were made in order to reshape the musical contacts between Sweden and the newly established German states. Sweden as a political neutral country had a special position during the Cold War. The GDR authorities considered Sweden to be an important country to which they could aim their political propaganda. In this panel three researchers from three different disciplines present and discuss their ongoing research project titled Between East and West: Ideology, aesthetics and politics in the musical relations between Sweden and the GDR 1949–1989. In this project they study the musical relationship between Sweden and the GDR. The aim of the project is to find out which role music played in GDR’s attempted rapprochement with Sweden and how musicians, composers, musicologists and institutions in Sweden framed the musical encounters with the GDR.We will address the following central issues: The encounters between GDRs internationally oriented culture politics (and those operating in the field) and the musical organizations and stakeholders in Sweden. Main questions in the project are: How can the musical encounters between Sweden and the GDR becharacterized regarding dimensions, key areas, organizations and alteration? In what way did aesthetic and musicological ideas connect to politics and ideology in the musical relationship between Sweden and the GDR? How did these ideas and their realization change over time? How do analyses of the musical encounters contribute to a better understanding of the Cold War context?

PRESENTATIONS:

1. CANCELLED: Ursula Geisler (Linneaus University, Sweden): Not only Brecht and May. Musical encounters at the GDR culture centre in Stockholm
2. Henrik Rosengren (Lund University, Sweden): The conductor Carl von Garaguly in the GDR - between bourgeois romanticism and GDR nation building?
3. Petra Garberding (Södertörn University, Sweden):Musical transformation of human beings? Musical exchange between The Swedish State Concerts (Svenska Rikskonserter) and The East German Artist Office (Künstler-Agentur der DDR)

INDIVIDUAL ABSTRACTS:

CANCELLED: Paper 1: Ursula Geisler: “Not only Brecht and May. Musical encounters at the GDR culture centre in Stockholm”

Even if the music-artistic ideal in the GDR officially had been defined by acknowledging Soviet principles on socialist realism - not only in the years directly following 1949 -, the musical encounters with foreign Western countries where not strictly bound by this concept. This becomes apparent during the musical activities at the GDR culture center in Stockholm, which operated between 1967 and 1990. Besides cultivating the heritage of Bertolt Brecht with singers like Gisela May, the musical events were characterized by a stylistic and repertory diversification. A classical canon – Johann S. Bach, Wolfgang A. Mozart, Ludwig v. Beethoven, Franz Schubert – was often combined with a repertory by GDR composers like Leo Spies, Ernst H. Meyer or Paul Dessau. Concerts at the culture center in connection with Swedish event organizers – Stockholm Concert House, Stockholm Culture House and others – with the participation of GDR musicians, were constructed as important part of the foreign culture politics toward Sweden, before and after the political recognition in 1972. This paper will concentrate on the musical activities of the GDR culture center in Stockholm between 1967 and 1990. It focuses questions of transfer and encounters of repertory and musicians in a synchronic as well as diachronic perspective. 2

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Paper 2: Henrik Rosengren: “The conductor Carl von Garaguly in the GDR - between bourgeois romanticism and GDR nation building?”

My paper will be based on a study of the Swedish-Hungarian conductor Carl von Garaguly’s work in the GDR from 1949 to around 1980.Garaguly was apart from Herbert Blomstedt the Swedish conductor, who most frequently performed in the GDR. His conducting spanned over almost the entire period of the GDR. In December 1949 he was to be the first foreign director who conducted in Dresden. Using Garaguly as a case, I would like to analyze the function of foreign guest conductors in relation to the national and socialist identity construction of the GDR, but also problematize the image of fully controlled East German cultural politics. In what way did Garaguly contribute, especially in terms of his repertoire, to the construction of the GDR's identity building as a state? What role did the fact that he came from, in terms of the Cold War discourse, “neutral” Sweden play? The East German cultural policy was formulated in terms of rejection of romanticism, which officially was seen as bourgeois, and an affirmation of classicism. Classicism was perceived as more easily placed within the principles of Socialist Realism. To which extent is Garaguly’s work in the GDR possible to fit into such a dichotomy? How was Garagulys appearance received in the East German and Swedish receptions? What explanatory factors can contribute to an understanding of these receptions?

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Paper 3: Petra Garberding: “Musical transformation of human beings? Musical exchange between The Swedish State Concerts (Svenska Rikskonserter) and The East German Artist Office (Künstler-Agentur der DDR)”

From the 1960s up to the 1980s the musical exchange between Sweden and the GDR was organized to a large extent by two authorities, the Swedish State Concerts (Svenska Rikskonserter) and the East German Artist Office (Künstler-Agentur der DDR). Performances and tours from East German artists were normally planned and controlled by the GDR government, and the East German Artist Office established a regular exchange of musicians, groups, choirs, orchestras and others with the Swedish State Concert Office. This exchange started during the 1960s and continued until the GDR dissolved in 1990. This paper gives an insight in the connection between the two authorities and describes what kind of artists and music were exchanged between Sweden and the GDR. It also discusses what problems occurred and how the different agents tried to solve them. The main purpose of the paper is to analyze different views about the connections between music and political ideology and how these ideas changed over time. In Sweden and the GDR, during the 1960s and 1970s, for example, there were ideas that music, and especially classical music, should be made available for all groups in society and not only for the upper classes. An important task for the two organizations was to make music available in the whole country for everyone. This included political ideas about education and democracy: Music should be used as a tool to create a new human being: well-educated and actively participating in a democratic system. Over time, the GDR state control over the musical exchange increased which resulted in conflicts between and within the organizations. In this paper some of these conflicts are studied in more detail.

ABSTRACT. Sessionen behandlar kvinnor som aktörer i förändringssituationer. Exemplen är hämtade från olika delar av Norden från kristnandet till senmedeltiden. Brytningspunkterna som behandlas är av både religiös och politisk art.

Kristnandet utsatte de nordiska samhällena för stress på flera olika sätt, och intressant nog har vi från Nordens kristnande ett antal helgonlegender som just fokuserar på kvinnliga gestalter. Dessa inkluderar helgon från 3 nordiska stift: Margaret (Roskilde), Elin (Skara) och Sunniva (Bergen).

Den religiösa sfärens inverkan på den politiska var i en mening självklar. Den fick en särskilt tydlig form i Birgitta Birgersdotters profetiska gestalt. Personligen och genom sin klosterorden utövade hon en moralisk auktoritet, som var både krävande och stödjande för kvinnliga makthavare som drottning Blanka av Norge och Sverige, unionsgrundaren Margareta och unionsdrottningen Filippa. Såväl i Norden som i andra delar av Europa förändrades helighets- och andaktsidealen under 1300-talet, till ökad individualisering och fokus på personligt ansvarstagande.

Förändringar och brytningspunker av mer renodlat politiskt slag kommer också att studeras. De unga hertiginnorna Ingeborg Eriksdotter och Ingeborg Håkansdotter kastades år 1318 in i en politisk omvälvningsprocess i Sverige, som även kom att få konsekvenser för Norge och Danmark. Grunden lades till en långvarig norsk-svensk union, och planer fanns på att utnyttja Danmarks svaghetsperiod för en annektering av Skåne. Hertiginnorna kom med varierande grad av framgång att spela en aktiv roll i nordisk politik under mer än fyra decennier.

Det sista exempel på kvinnor i brytningstid som behandlas i sessionen är kungadottern Magdalena Karlsdotter. Hennes make, Ivar Axelsson (Tott) hade varit en framträdande spelare i nordisk och baltisk politik, men besegrats i en maktkamp med den svenske riksföreståndaren Sten Sture d.ä. Efter herr Ivars död 1487 måste änkan manövrera i detta delvis fientliga landskap.

Dessa bidrag lyfter fram kvinnor som förebilder för varandra, och som aktörer under politiska och religiösa brytningstider.

OPLÆG:

1. Sara E. Ellis Nilsson (Göteborgs universitet/Malmö högskola): Det nykristna samhället och heliga kvinnor: Margaret, Sunniva och Elin.
2. Anders Fröjmark (Linnéuniversitetet): Rebeller och unionsgrundare: hertiginnorna Ingeborg i nordisk politik (ca 1300–1350).
3. Margaret Wallace Nilsson (Linnéuniversitetet): The limitations and potential of widowhood in fifteenth century Sweden.

INDIVIDUELLE ABSTRACTS:

Sara E. Ellis Nilsson 

Det nykristna samhället och heliga kvinnor: Margaret, Sunniva och Elin 

Vilken roll tillskrevs kvinnor under den tidiga kristna perioden i Skandinavien? Vilka kvinnliga egenskaper kunde framställas som heliga? Detta paper undersöker några av de första lokala heliga kvinnor som lyftes fram och främjades som helgon av den nya kristna kyrkan. Berättelserna om dessa kvinnor, som finns bevarade från 1100- och tidigt 1200-tal, avslöjar olika aspekter av kvinnornas koppling till samhällets kristnande och vilka de egenskaperna var som lyftes fram som heliga. Dessutom kan processen kring deras translatio och senare helgonförklaringar också berätta en historia om samhällets intresse för just kvinnliga helgon. Dessa tre helgon är Margareta av Roskilde (Danmark) och Elin av Skövde (Sverige) som levde på 1100-talet, samt Sunniva som ansågs ha levt på 900-talet. Själva konverteringen till kristendomen är en av de tydligaste historiska brytningspunkterna i Skandinavien. Men, som nu är rätt allmänt accepterat inom forskarvärlden, var denna ingen plötsligt historisk vändning. Kristnandet var en långsiktig förvandling av samhället – både inom den politiska maktsfären och av vardagliga bekymmer – som tog flera hundra år. Tidigare forskning har påpekat kvinnornas roll i den tidiga delen av denna process. Under 1100-talet konsoliderades denna utveckling med etablerandet av tre kyrkoprovinser i Lund (1103), Nidaros (1153) och Uppsala (1164). Nu fanns det strukturer för att föreviga de kvinnor som hade spelat en viktig roll och som var mest lämpliga som helgon.

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Anders Fröjmark

Rebeller och unionsgrundare: hertiginnorna Ingeborg i nordisk politik (ca 1300–1350)

År 1312, gifte sig två norska prinsessor och kusiner, båda med namnet Ingeborg, med två svenska hertigar, yngre bröder till kung Birger Magnusson. De tre nordiska rikena hade länge härjats av inre stridigheter, och relationerna dem emellan präglades av misstänksamhet. År 1318 lät kung Birger mörda sina två bröder. De unga änkorna samlade de mot kungen kritiska svenska stormännen bakom sig i ett uppror, varvid de knöt an till oppositionella krafter även i Danmark. Kung Birger flydde ur riket till sin svåger, kung Erik Menved i Danmark. Inte endast ett, utan två riken föll i hertiginnornas händer, eftersom kung Håkan av Norge dog följande år. Arvinge till tronen var Magnus Eriksson, ende son till den yngre hertiginnan. Tre år gammal ärvde Magnus Norges tron. En och en halv månad senare valdes han också till svensk konung. Med tanke på hans låga ålder blev modern förmyndarregent i båda rikena. Presentationen kommer att handla om mer respektive mindre framgångsrika aspekter på hertiginnornas nätverksbyggande, deras roll i grundläggandet av en unionsmonarki, och deras eftermäle. Den kommer även att beröra deras personliga bakgrund och diskutera hur den kan ha förberett dem för deras politiska roll.

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Margaret Wallace Nilsson 

The limitations and potential of widowhood in fifteenth century Sweden 

Women in the Middle Ages are often pushed onto the historical sidelines due to lack of source materials. This is especially true of research concerning women in the later period of the Union of Kalmar. Part of my main research focuses on the mentalities and emotionalities of magnatial network of the Dano-Swedish Axelsson Totts in the second half of the fifteenth century. One growing point of interest is the role of the female members of the network as brides and wives, but more so, the interests, self-determination and independence of widows within the affinitive network. The role and function of the female network members is not a well-researched area. Research on the Kalmar Union has been dominated by the politics of the period or their male counterparts. But as I discovered, studies of the female members of the affinitive network creates a three dimensionality to network research. What difficulties did a widow face immediately after the death of husband and which strategies were best implemented in order to maintain limited but functional dependency in society and within the affinitive network? This contribution focuses on Magdalena Karlsdotter (Bonde), Princess of Sweden and wife of Ivar Axelsson (Tott), at just such a dramatic turning point, not only for the future of Union, but also for the inner dynamics of the magnatial networks. With the help of the extant sources available I will attempt to present her life during the Sture period from the time of her widowhood in 1487 until her death in 1495. What do the sources tell us about her personality, piety, qualities as a landowner and her shrewdness as a business woman? How did her role as widow evolve as a member of the Tott-Bonde network after the death of Ivar Axelsson?

ABSTRACT. In the 19th century all the Nordic countries experienced considerable activity in removing a number of obstacles that had previously made female economic and social activity outside the family business or circle difficult. The emancipation of unmarried women from parental authority at a set age, instead of at marriage was one issue. Girls of middle class origin were also granted the right to education and at the end of the century the baccalaureate and university studies. On the other hand simultaneous legislation also increased the economic power of the husband within the marriage in the sense of increasing control over marital assets. The aim of this session is to analyse the effect of these reforms on the actual engagement of women in economic, educational and other pursuits. What information can for example census records, tax records or directories tell us about female economic engagement. Does an analysis of legal documents such as court records, wills or inventories tell a story of greater or lesser female economic emancipation. Does increased female employment outside the home, or educational pursuits, co-inside with changes in legislation or were women active, on the sly, even before the changes? Is it possible that certain groups of women benefited more than others?